7 Organometallic Chemistry: Compounds with Metal–Carbon Bonds

Periodic Table of the Elements

Hydrogen

1



H



1



2



3



4



5



6



7



MAIN GROUP METALS



1.0079

1A

(1)



2A

(2)



Lithium

3



Beryllium

4



Li



TRANSITION METALS



Uranium

92



U



METALLOIDS



Be



6.941

9.0122

Sodium Magnesium

12

11



Na



Mg



3B

(3)



4B

(4)



5B

(5)



6B

(6)



7B

(7)



22.9898



24.3050



Potassium

19



Calcium

20



Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese

22

23

24

25

21



39.0983



40.078



44.9559



K



Ca



Rubidium Strontium

37

38



Rb



Sr



Sc



Yttrium

39



Ti



47.867



V



50.9415



Cr



51.9961



Mn



54.9380



Y



Zr



Nb



Hf



Ta



Tc



W



Re



132.9055

Francium

87



137.327 138.9055 178.49 180.9479 183.84

186.207

Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium

105

107

104

106

88

89



Fr



Ra



88.9059

91.224 92.9064

Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum

57

72

73



Mo



87.62

Barium

56



Ba



La



Ac



(223.02) (226.0254) (227.0278)



Note: Atomic masses are

2007 IUPAC values

(up to four decimal places).

Numbers in parentheses are

atomic masses or mass numbers

of the most stable isotope of

an element.



kotz_48288_00a_ EP2-3_SE.indd 2



Atomic weight



8B

(8)



(9)



(10)



1B

(11)



Iron

26



Cobalt

27



Nickel

28



Copper

29



55.845



58.9332



58.6934



63.546



Fe



Co



Ni



Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium

45

41

42

43

40

44

46



85.4678

Cesium

55



Cs



Symbol



238.0289



NONMETALS



Atomic number



Rf



(267)



Lanthanides



Actinides



Db



(268)



95.96

(97.907)

Tungsten Rhenium

75

74



Sg



(271)



Bh



(272)



Ru



101.07

Osmium

76



Os



Rh



Pd



Ir



Pt



Cu



Silver

47



Ag



102.9055 106.42 107.8682

Iridium Platinum

Gold

77

79

78



Au



190.23

192.22

195.084 196.9666

Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium

109

110

111

108



Hs



(270)



Mt



(276)



Ds



(281)



Rg



(280)



Cerium

58



Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium

59

60

61

64

63

62



140.116



140.9076



Ce



Pr



Nd



144.242



Pm



(144.91)



Sm



150.36



Eu



151.964



Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium

92

94

91

90

93

95



Th



Pa



U



Np



Pu



Am



Gd



157.25

Curium

96



Cm



232.0381 231.0359 238.0289 (237.0482) (244.664) (243.061) (247.07)



11/22/10 1:37 PM



8A

(18)

Helium

2



He



3A

(13)



4A

(14)



5A

(15)



6A

(16)



7A

(17)



4.0026



Boron

5



Carbon

6



Nitrogen

7



Oxygen

8



Fluorine

9



Neon

10



10.811

Aluminum

13



12.011

Silicon

14



14.0067 15.9994

Phosphorus Sulfur

15

16



18.9984

Chlorine

17



20.1797

Argon

18



2B

(12)



26.9815



28.0855



30.9738



32.066



35.4527



39.948



Zinc

30



Gallium

31



Germanium

32



Arsenic

33



Selenium

34



Bromine

35



Krypton

36



65.38



69.723



72.61



74.9216



78.96



79.904



83.80



Cadmium

48



Indium

49



Tin

50



Iodine

53



Xenon

54



112.411

Mercury

80



114.818

Thallium

81



118.710

Lead

82



200.59



204.3833



207.2



B



Zn



Cd



Hg



Copernicium



112



Cn



(285)



Al



Ga

In

Tl



C



Si



Ge

Sn



Pb



Tb



P



As



O

S



Se



Antimony Tellurium

51

52



Sb



121.760

Bismuth

83



Bi



Te



F



Cl



Br

I



127.60 126.9045

Polonium Astatine

84

85



Po



At



208.9804 (208.98) (209.99)



Ne

Ar

Kr



Xe



131.29

Radon

86



Rn



(222.02)



Ununtrium Ununquadium Ununpentium Ununhexium Ununseptium Ununoctium

113

114

115

116

117

118



Uut



Discovered

2004



Uuq



Discovered

1999



Terbium Dysprosium Holmium

66

67

65

158.9254



N



Dy



162.50



Ho



164.9303



Uup



Uuh



Uus



Uuo



Discovered

2004



Discovered

1999



Discovered

2010



Erbium

68



Thulium

69



Ytterbium Lutetium

71

70



167.26



168.9342



173.054 174.9668



Er



Tm



Yb



Discovered

2002



Lu



Standard Colors

for Atoms in

Molecular Models

carbon atoms

hydrogen atoms

oxygen atoms



Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium

97

100

102

98

99

101

103



nitrogen atoms



(247.07)



chlorine atoms



Bk



kotz_48288_00a_ EP2-3_SE.indd 3



Cf



Es



(251.08) (252.08)



Fm



Md



(257.10) (258.10)



No



Lr



(259.10) (262.11)



11/22/10 1:37 PM



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eighth edition



chemistry



& Chemical Reactivity

John C. Kotz

State University of New York

College at Oneonta



Paul M. Treichel

University of Wisconsin–Madison



John R. Townsend

West Chester University of Pennsylvania



Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States



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Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity, Eighth Edition

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kotz_48288_00c_FM_i-xxxiii.indd 2



11/19/10 12:11 PM



brief contents

18 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Other Aspects of

Aqueous Equilibria  806



Part ONE The Basic Tools of Chemistry

1



Basic Concepts of Chemistry 







Let’s Review: The Tools of Quantitative Chemistry 



2



Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 



3



Chemical Reactions 



4



Stoichiometry: Quantitative Information about

Chemical Reactions  156



5



Principles of Chemical Reactivity:

Energy and Chemical Reactions  208







Interchapter: The Chemistry of Fuels and Energy

Resources  252



1

24



19 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Entropy and Free

Energy  858

20 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Electron Transfer

Reactions  894



50



110







The Structure of Atoms 



7



The Structure of Atoms and Periodic Trends 







21 The Chemistry of the Main Group Elements 

22 The Chemistry of the Transition Elements 

23 Nuclear Chemistry 



960



1016



1058



Appendices



266



A



Using Logarithms and Solving Quadratic Equations 



300



B



Some Important Physical Concepts 



Interchapter: Milestones in the Development of

Chemistry and the Modern View of Atoms and

Molecules  334



C



Abbreviations and Useful Conversion Factors 



D



Physical Constants 



8



Bonding and Molecular Structure 



E



A Brief Guide to Naming Organic Compounds 



9



Bonding and Molecular Structure: Orbital

Hybridization and Molecular Orbitals  400



F



Values for the Ionization Energies and Electron

Attachment Enthalpies of the Elements  A-18



G



Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures 



H



Ionization Constants for Aqueous Weak Acids

at 25 °C  A-20



I



Ionization Constants for Aqueous Weak Bases

at 25 °C  A-22



J



Solubility Product Constants for Some Inorganic

Compounds at 25 °C  A-23



K



Formation Constants for Some Complex Ions in

Aqueous Solution at 25 °C  A-25



L



Selected Thermodynamic Values 



10 Carbon: Not Just Another Element 





344



438



Interchapter: The Chemistry of Life: Biochemistry 



490



Part THREE States of Matter

11



Gases and Their Properties 



508



12 Intermolecular Forces and Liquids 

13 The Chemistry of Solids 





548



582



14 Solutions and Their Behavior 



616



Interchapter: The Chemistry of Modern

Materials  656



15 Chemical Kinetics: The Rates of Chemical

Reactions  668

720



17 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: The Chemistry of

Acids and Bases  756



kotz_48288_00c_FM_i-xxxiii.indd 3



A-2



A-6

A-9



A-13

A-15



A-19



A-26



M Standard Reduction Potentials in Aqueous Solution at

25°C  A-32



Part FOUR The Control of Chemical

Reactions



16 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Equilibria 



946



Part FIVE The Chemistry of the Elements

and Their Compounds



Part TWO The Structure of Atoms

and Molecules

6



Interchapter: The Chemistry of the Environment 



N



Answers to Chapter Opening Questions and Case

Study Questions  A-36



O



Answers to Check Your Understanding Questions 



P



Answers to Review & Check Questions 



Q



Answers to Selected Interchapter Study

Questions  A-72



R



Answers to Selected Study Questions 



A-47



A-63



A-75



iii



11/19/10 12:11 PM



iv



contents

Preface 



xvii



Part ONE The Basic Tools of Chemistry 

1



Basic Concepts of Chemistry 







Gold!  1



1.1



Chemistry and Its Methods  2

Hypotheses, Laws, and Theories  3

A Closer Look: Careers in Chemistry  4

Goals of Science  5

Dilemmas and Integrity in Science  5



3



Mathematics of Chemistry  33

Exponential or Scientific Notation  33

Significant Figures  35



4



Problem Solving by Dimensional Analysis  39

Case Study: Out of Gas!  40



5



Graphs and Graphing  41



6



Problem Solving and Chemical Arithmetic  42



1



1.2



Sustainability and Green Chemistry  5

A Closer Look: Principles of Green Chemistry  6



1.3



Classifying Matter  6

States of Matter and Kinetic-Molecular Theory  7

Matter at the Macroscopic and Particulate Levels  8

Pure Substances  8

Mixtures: Homogeneous and Heterogeneous  9



1.4



Elements  10

A Closer Look: Element Names and Symbols  11



1.5



Compounds  12



1.6



Physical Properties  13

Extensive and Intensive Properties  14



1.7



Physical and Chemical Changes  15



1.8



Energy: Some Basic Principles  16

Case Study: CO2 in the Oceans  17

Conservation of Energy  18



Study Questions  44



2



Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 







The Periodic Table, the Central Icon of Chemistry  50



2.1



Atomic Structure—Protons, Electrons,

and Neutrons  51



2.2



Atomic Number and Atomic Mass  52

Atomic Number  52

Relative Atomic Mass and the Atomic Mass Unit  52

Mass Number  52



2.3



Isotopes  54

Isotope Abundance  54

Determining Atomic Mass and Isotope Abundance  54



2.4



Atomic Weight  55

Case Study: Using Isotopes: Ötzi, the Iceman of the

Alps  58



2.5



The Periodic Table  58

Developing the Periodic Table  58

A Closer Look: The Story of the Periodic Table  59

Features of the Periodic Table  61

A Brief Overview of the Periodic Table and the

Chemical Elements  62



Chapter Goals Revisited  19

Key Equation  19

Study Questions  20



50







Let’s Review: The Tools of Quantitative

Chemistry  24



2.6



Molecules, Compounds, and Formulas  66

Formulas  66

Molecular Models  68







Copper  24



2.7



1



Units of Measurement  25

Temperature Scales  25

Length, Volume, and Mass  27

A Closer Look: Energy and Food  29

Energy Units  29



Ionic Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Properties  69

Ions  69

Formulas of Ionic Compounds  73

Names of Ions  74

Properties of Ionic Compounds  76



2.8



Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names  78



2



Making Measurements: Precision, Accuracy,

Experimental Error, and Standard Deviation  30

Experimental Error  31

Standard Deviation  32



2.9



Atoms, Molecules, and the Mole  80

Atoms and Molar Mass  80

A Closer Look: Amedeo Avogadro and His Number  81

Molecules, Compounds, and Molar Mass  82



iv



kotz_48288_00c_FM_i-xxxiii.indd 4



11/19/10 12:11 PM



2.10 Describing Compound Formulas  85

Percent Composition  85

Empirical and Molecular Formulas from Percent

Composition  87

Determining a Formula from Mass Data  89

Case Study: Mummies, Bangladesh, and the Formula of

Compound 606  92

Determining a Formula by Mass Spectrometry  92

A Closer Look: Mass Spectrometry, Molar Mass,

and Isotopes  93

2.11 Hydrated Compounds  94

Chapter Goals Revisited  96

Key Equations  97

Study Questions  98



3.9



Chapter Goals Revisited   147

Study Questions  148

Applying Chemical Principles: Superconductors   155



4



Stoichiometry: Quantitative Information

about Chemical Reactions  156







The Chemistry of Pyrotechnics  156



4.1



Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions:

Stoichiometry  157



4.2



Reactions in Which One Reactant Is Present in Limited

Supply  161

A Stoichiometry Calculation with a Limiting

Reactant  161



4.3



Percent Yield  165



Applying Chemical Principles: Argon—An Amazing

Discovery   109



3



Chemical Reactions 







Black Smokers and Volcanoes  110



3.1



Introduction to Chemical Equations  111

A Closer Look: Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, 1743–1794  112



3.2



Balancing Chemical Equations  114



3.3



Introduction to Chemical Equilibrium  116



3.4



Aqueous Solutions  119

Ions and Molecules in Aqueous Solutions  119

Solubility of Ionic Compounds in Water  122



3.5



Precipitation Reactions  123

Predicting the Outcome of a Precipitation

Reaction  124

Net Ionic Equations  126



3.6



110



Acids and Bases  128

Acids and Bases: The Arrhenius Definition  128

Acids and Bases: The Brønsted–Lowry Definition  130

A Closer Look: The Hydronium Ion—The H1 Ion

in Water  131

Reactions of Acids and Bases  132

A Closer Look: Sulfuric Acid  133

Oxides of Nonmetals and Metals  134



3.7



Gas-Forming Reactions  136



3.8



Oxidation–Reduction Reactions  137

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions and Electron

Transfer  138

Oxidation Numbers  139

A Closer Look: Are Oxidation Numbers “Real”?  140

Recognizing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions  141







kotz_48288_00c_FM_i-xxxiii.indd 5



Classifying Reactions in Aqueous Solution  144

Case Study: Killing Bacteria with Silver  144



4.4 Chemical Equations and Chemical Analysis  166

Quantitative Analysis of a Mixture  167

Case Study: Green Chemistry and Atom Economy  168

Determining the Formula of a Compound by

Combustion  169

4.5



Measuring Concentrations of Compounds

in Solution  173

Solution Concentration: Molarity  173

Preparing Solutions of Known Concentration  175

A Closer Look: Serial Dilutions  178



4.6 pH, a Concentration Scale for Acids and Bases  178

4.7



Stoichiometry of Reactions in Aqueous Solution  181

Solution Stoichiometry  181

Titration: A Method of Chemical Analysis  182

Standardizing an Acid or Base  184

Determining Molar Mass by Titration  185

Titrations Using Oxidation–Reduction Reactions  186

Case Study: How Much Salt Is There in Seawater?  187



4.8



Spectrophotometry  188

Case Study: Forensic Chemistry: Titrations and Food

Tampering  189

Transmittance, Absorbance, and the Beer–Lambert

Law  189

Spectrophotometric Analysis  191

Chapter Goals Revisited  193

Key Equations  194

Study Questions  195

Applying Chemical Principles: Antacids   207



Contents



v



11/19/10 12:11 PM