II. COMPOST RESEARCH FOR VEGETABLE CROPPING SYSTEMS

biomass produced was generally higher in mixtures which contained higher rates of

compost.

B. Cruciferous Crops

Municipal waste compost at 0, 7, 14, and 27 Mg·ha–1 did not affect head yields

of broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. Italica group) fertilized with 84 or 168 kg·ha–1 of

N on a fine sand in a study by Roe et al. (1990).

Low rates of a vegetable waste and manure compost (3 Mg·ha–1) with fertilizer

N at 75 kg·ha–1 significantly improved broccoli crop response and N use efficiency

when compared to a fertilizer-only treatment of 150 kg·ha–1 N plus 50 kg·ha–1 P

(Buchanan and Gliessman, 1991). Increasing applications of compost alone (3, 7.5,

and 30 Mg·ha-1) tended to increase broccoli yield and N accumulation, but decreased

N use efficiency.

Smith et al. (1992) reported no detrimental effects on cabbage (Brassica oleracea

L. Capitata group) yields from a biosolids/straw compost used at rates up to 100%

of the N requirement. At any given rate of applied N, optimal cabbage yields were

obtained when half the N was supplied from an organic source (compost) and half

from ammonium nitrate. Compost application improved the efficiency of mineral

fertilizer use. The beneficial effects of compost were attributed to favorable effects

on soil physical conditions and to the gradual release of essential phytonutrients.

Chinese cabbage (probably Brassica rapa L. Chinensis group) yields were

increased by the addition of swine waste compost at 25 Mg·ha–1, with or without

sawdust, compared to no-compost plots with an acid field soil (pH ≤ 5.0), but not

with a neutral soil (Kao, 1993). All plots also received fertilizer at a rate of 80N9P-33K (kg·ha–1). With the acid soil, Zn and Cu concentrations in the leaves from

plots with sawdust/swine waste compost were higher than in leaves from no-compost

plots.

Maynard (1994) reported that yields of broccoli and cauliflower (Brassica oleracea L. Botrytis group) from unfertilized plots amended with a mixed compost

(poultry manure, horse manure, spent mushroom compost, and sawdust) at 56 or

112 Mg·ha–1 were similar to or greater than yields from plots fertilized with 150 N66P-125K (kg·ha–1).

C. Cucurbits

Winter (butternut) squash (Cucurbita moschata Duch. ex Poir.) seedlings

emerged slightly faster from plots mulched with MSW compost than from polyethylene mulched plots, but fruit yields were unaffected (Roe et al., 1993).

A summer squash (Cucurbita pepo L.) crop was grown following a tomato

(Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) crop in a field where two MSW composts had been

applied at 0, 33, or 67 Mg·ha–1 and a third MSW compost at 0, 67, and 135 Mg·ha–1,

before tomato planting. Total squash yields and mean fruit size were increased by

all rates of two of the composts and not affected by the other, compared to plots

without compost (Bryan et al., 1994).



© 2001 by CRC Press LLC



Table 5.1 Summary of Recent Research Reporting Effects of Compost on Vegetable

Crop Growth and Yields

Crop

Alliaceae

Onion

Asteraceae

Lettuce

Brassicaceae

Broccoli



Cabbage

Cauliflower

Chinese cabbage

Chenopodiaceae

Spinach

Cucurbitaceae

Cucumber

Summer squash

Winter squash

Fabaceae

Cowpea

Snap bean



Soybean

Malvaceae

Okra

Poaceae

Corn



Solanaceae

Eggplant

Pepper



Tomato



© 2001 by CRC Press LLC



Growth

Compost Responsez



Yield

Effectsz



Reference



BS/AW

BS/WC



NA

NA



+, =

+



Smith et al., 1992

Bevacqua and Mellano, 1993



BS/WC



NA



+



Bevacqua and Mellano, 1993



MSW

AM, AW



NA

NA



=

+



AM

BS/AW

AM

AM/AW



NA

NA

NA

NA



+, =

+

+, =

+, –



Roe et al., 1990

Buchanan and Gliessman,

1991

Maynard, 1994

Smith et al., 1992

Maynard, 1994

Kao, 1993



BS



NA



+, =



Mellano and Bevacqua, 1992



AW

MSW

MSW



+

NA

NA



+

+, =

=



Kostov et al., 1995

Bryan et al., 1994

Roe et al., 1993



MSW

MSW



NA

NA



+

+, =



AM

YT

wood



NA

+

+



+, =

+, =

NA



Bryan and Lance, 1991

Ozores-Hampton and Bryan,

1993a

Allen and Preer, 1995

Gray and Tahwid, 1995

Lawson et al., 1995



MSW



+



+



BS/YT

YT

MSW



NA

+

+



–

NA

NA



MSW



NA



+



MSW

MSW



NA

NA



=

–



MSW

MSW

BS/YT

leaf

BS/YT

MSW

MSW

MSW

MSW

AW

MSW

MSW



NA

NA

NA

NA

+, =

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA



–

–

=

=

+

+

+

–, =

+

+, =, –

+,–

+, –



Bryan and Lance, 1991

Hornick, 1988

Hue et al., 1994

Paino et al., 1996

Ozores-Hampton and Bryan,

1993b

Roe et al., 1992

Ozores-Hampton and Bryan,

1993b

Clark et al.. 1994

Roe et al., 1994

Roe and Stoffella, 1994b

Maynard, 1996

Roe et al., 1997

Bryan and Lance, 1991

Manios and Kapetanios, 1992

Bryan et al., 1994

Clark et al., 1994

Maynard, 1994

Obreza and Reeder, 1994

Ozores-Hampton et al., 1994



Table 5.1 Summary of Recent Research Reporting Effects of Compost on Vegetable

Crop Growth and Yields (Continued)

Crop



Growth

Compost Responsez

BS/YT

BS

Various

MSW

MSW

AW



NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

+



Yield

Effectsz

=

+

+, –

+

+

+



Reference

Roe and Stoffella, 1994a

Allen and Preer, 1995

Alvarez et al., 1995

Bryan et al., 1995

Maynard, 1995

Stoffella and Graetz, 1997



Note: BS, biosolids; AW, agricultural wastes; WC, wood chips; MSW, municipal solid waste;

AM, animal manures; YT, yard trimmings.

z NA, +, –, = represent: information not available, increased, decreased, or equal, respectively.



Kostov et al. (1995) reported that greenhouse cucumbers (Cucumis sativus L.)

grown on a medium containing composting vegetable wastes with the addition of

synthetic nutrients produced fruit 10 to 12 days earlier and had a yield 48 to 79%

higher than those grown in soil mixed with cattle manure at a 2:1 ratio (dry weight

basis). The composting wastes raised soil temperatures, increased CO2 production

and microbial biomass, and released nutrients for plant utilization.

D. Legumes

Recognition of the need for more research into the relationship between soil

microbiological populations and organic matter may result in more studies of compost effects on legume nodulation and N fixation. Lawson et al. (1995) reported that

soybeans (Glycine max L.) grown in acid or saline soil amended with 4% wood

waste compost had improved nodulation and shoot growth when compared with

those in unamended soil.

Other studies of vegetable legume crop responses to composts have focused on

yields. With N added at 84 kg·ha–1 , 13 and 20 Mg·ha–1 of MSW compost gave

higher cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp.) pod yields than 7 Mg·ha–1 of compost

or no compost. With 168 kg·ha–1 N, yields were higher with 7, 13, and 20 Mg·ha–1

compost than with no compost (Bryan and Lance, 1991).

An MSW compost incorporated at 90 and 135 Mg·ha–1 into a calcareous limestone soil resulted in snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) yields that were similar to

beans grown without compost in the first crop, but quadratic yield increases with

compost rate increases (starting from the zero-rate control) in the subsequent crop

(Ozores-Hampton and Bryan, 1993a).

Composts from biosolids, horse manure, and yard trimmings were applied for

2 years to identical plots of a silt loam soil at rates of 53 Mg·ha–1 (Allen and Preer,

1995). Snap beans from the manure compost plots produced yields equal to those

from fertilized control plots in the first year. In the second year, the manure and

yard trimmings compost plots produced the highest yields.



© 2001 by CRC Press LLC



Gray and Tawhid (1995) reported that snap bean seedling emergence and plant

survival in unmulched plots were increased by the addition of 2.5 cm of leaf compost

as a mulch over rows after seeding.

E. Solanaceous Crops

Many of the studies involving compost utilization for solanaceous crop production have been conducted in Florida. The combination of a large vegetable industry

on soils low in organic matter, plus high urban populations producing large quantities

of organic wastes has supported extensive compost research in Florida.

When 10 Mg·ha–1 of MSW compost was applied in trenches in combination with

6.7 to 13.4 Mg·ha–1 of MSW compost incorporated into beds on a gravelly soil,

tomato yields were higher than with no compost (Bryan and Lance, 1991).

Manios and Kapetanios (1992) studied MSW compost use in greenhouse tomato

production. Although all treatments were supplied with equal amounts of fertilizer

through irrigation, yields of greenhouse tomatoes grown in soil were highest with

the highest MSW compost application rates (10 m3 compost per 1000 m2 soil),

compared to 5 m3 compost per 1000 m2 soil or no-compost. They also reported that

compost stored outside and exposed to natural conditions for one winter affected

yields similarly to compost that was stored under cover, despite a lower electrical

conductivity (EC) in the former compost.

Roe et al. (1992) evaluated MSW compost as a mulch, compared with a standard

polyethylene mulch, on bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) production systems.

They reported that biosolids/yard trimmings compost used as a mulch at 112 and

224 Mg·ha–1 on bell peppers grown on raised beds increased total fruit yields when

compared with no mulch, but yields were similar to or lower than with polyethylene

mulches. Municipal solid waste compost used as mulches at 13, 40, or 121 Mg·ha–1

decreased bell pepper yields as compared with polyethylene mulches, even though

all plots were fertilized with a total of 269N-45P-192K (kg·ha–1). However, yields

increased linearly with increasing compost mulch rates. In another experiment, total

bell pepper fruit yields from plots mulched with MSW compost at 224 Mg·ha–1 were

less than half of those from polyethylene-mulched plots (Roe et al., 1994).

Ozores-Hampton and Bryan (1993b) reported increased total marketable and

large fruit from eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) and higher yield of large bell

pepper fruit grown in plots amended with MSW compost at 90 and 134 Mg·ha–1

than from unamended plots.

In another experiment, one MSW compost was applied at 0, 33, or 67 Mg·ha–1

and another at 0, 67, and 135 Mg·ha–1, and tomatoes were planted, followed by

squash (Bryan et al., 1994). Additional compost was applied at identical rates prior

to planting a subsequent tomato crop. In both tomato crops, growth and yields were

reduced by one of the composts, but not affected by the other.

In a four-season experiment, MSW compost applied at 67 and 135 Mg·ha–1 on

drip- irrigated plots, with fertilizer at 215, 309, or 403 kg·ha–1 of N, 44 kg·ha–1 of

P, and 248, 356, or 464 kg·ha–1 of K, reduced yields in the initial crop of bell peppers

in compost plots. A subsequent tomato crop had more extra large and total marketable



© 2001 by CRC Press LLC



fruit, when compared with no-compost plots (Clark et al, 1994). This compost may

have been initially immature, since another pepper crop grown on the identical plots

resulted in increased yields. Fertilizer applied to compost plots for that crop did not

affect yields, but increased yields in no-compost plots. Yields from early and final

harvests and extra large fruit in an additional tomato crop also were higher in compost

plots than in no-compost plots.

Maynard (1994) reported that tomato and bell pepper fruit yields from plots

amended with compost produced from poultry manure with other agricultural wastes

were similar to or greater than yields from fertilized plots, except in one crop of

tomatoes where they were lower.

Obreza and Reeder (1994) reported that immature MSW composts at 13, 27, 75,

and 112 Mg·ha–1 generally did not change or decreased yields of tomatoes for 2

years, when compared with plants grown without compost and fertilized at the same

rate (56N-49P-93K kg·ha–1 preplant and 172N-57P-230K kg·ha–1 applied through

the drip system).

With N at rates of 240 kg.ha–1, fruit yields from tomatoes grown in soil amended

with one MSW compost at 48 Mg·ha–1 or another at 24 Mg·ha–1 were similar to

those from plants grown in plots without composts (Ozores-Hampton et al., 1994).

Transplanting tomato and pepper plants into a field containing an uncured (immature) and newly incorporated biosolids/yard trimming compost at 135 Mg·ha–1 (fresh

weight) immediately or up to 4 weeks after compost application did not result in

yield differences in pepper or tomato fruit when compared with unamended plots

(Roe and Stoffella, 1994a, 1994b).

Tomatoes produced higher yields when grown with amendments of horse manure

or biosolids compost at 53 Mg·ha–1 than with the same rate of yard trimmings

compost, biosolids/yard trimmings compost, or fertilizer at 220N-97P-183K

(kg·ha–1) in one year, but in the second year, highest yields were from the fertilized

or biosolids compost-amended plots (Allen and Preer, 1995).

Alvarez et al. (1995) reported that three of four commercial composts incorporated into a soil increased growth of tomato plants, while one compost depressed

tomato growth. Compost amendments caused only small variations in the total

numbers of bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi in the rhizosphere of tomato plants.

However, the addition of some composts increased the incidence of certain rhizobacteria antagonistic to soilborne pathogens such as Pythium ultimum and Rhizoctonia solani.

Auclair et al. (1995) compared organic growing media for greenhouse tomato

production. When tomatoes were grown on peat moss and shrimp compost, fruit

contents of Ca, Cu, Fe, P, and Zn increased and fruit ripened later than when tomatoes

were grown on composted cattle manure.

Marketable yield of tomatoes grown in calcareous soils was increased by additions of two MSW composts, one at 37 and 74 and the other at 74 and 148 Mg·ha–1,

compared with similarly fertilized plots without compost (Bryan et al., 1995). Rates

were selected so that the total N added would be 370 and 740 kg·ha–1 for the two

rates of each of the composts. Fruit size from compost plots was similar in the first

year and larger in the second year when compared with fruit from unamended plots.



© 2001 by CRC Press LLC



An MSW compost applied just before planting each spring at 56 and 112 Mg·ha–1

with fertilizer at 146N-64P-121K (kg·ha–1 ) resulted in tomato fruit yield increases

in three consecutive years, compared with fertilizer only (Maynard, 1995).

Undecomposed leaves (15.2 cm depth) tilled into plots in spring or fall or leaf

compost (112 Mg·ha–1) incorporated in spring for three years with fertilizer at 146N64P-121K (kg·ha–1) resulted in similar bell pepper yields in the control and compost

plots while yields were lowest from both treatments with undecomposed leaves in

the first year (Maynard, 1996). In the second year, plants in compost-amended plots

produced higher yields than plants in control plots or in plots with a fall application

of leaves, but similar yields to plants in plots with a spring application of leaves. In

the third year, yields were similar among all treatments.

When biosolids/yard trimming compost at 134 Mg·ha–1 or no-compost was

combined in a factorial arrangement with 0, 50, and 100% of a grower’s standard

fertilizer (71N-39P-44K kg·ha–1 broadcast and 283N-278K kg·ha–1 banded in bed

centers), highest bell pepper fruit yields occurred in the plots with compost and 50%

fertilizer (Roe et al., 1997).

In other studies, compost made from filtercake, a sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) processing waste, was used (Stoffella and Graetz, 1997). Tomatoes were

transplanted into pots filled with a 1:1 (v:v) mixture of the compost and a sandy

field soil, the field soil only, or the compost only. Plants from pots with compost or

compost mixtures had higher shoot weights, thicker stems, and larger shoot to root

ratios than plants grown in unamended field soil. In a field experiment, plants from

plots with the filtercake compost at 224 Mg·ha–1 were larger and produced higher

yields than plants grown without compost, regardless of fertilizer rates (Stoffella

and Graetz, 1997).

F. Other crops

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus [L.] Moench) grown in pots with MSW compost

mixed at 10 to 30% (v:v) with a very gravelly loam soil had increased lateral root

development and early fruit yields compared to plants grown in unamended soil

(Bryan and Lance, 1991).

Onion (Allium cepa L.) yield on a sandy loam soil increased with increasing

rate of organic matter application, when the organic matter was biosolids/straw

compost, or digested or raw biosolids (Smith et al., 1992)

Biosolids compost at 12 and 25 dry Mg·ha–1 increased onion and spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) yields when incorporated to a soil depth of 10 cm, but not to a 30

cm soil depth (Mellano and Bevacqua, 1992). Onion and lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)

plants grown in plots of sandy loam soil with biosolids/wood chips compost applied

over a 2-year period, at cumulative totals of 37 and 74 Mg·ha–1, produced higher

yields than the unamended control (Bevacqua and Mellano, 1993).



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III. CONCLUSIONS

Generalizing from numerous projects that examine the use of different composts

at varying rates with or without additional fertilizers on various vegetable crops in

diverse soils and assorted climates is extremely hazardous. However, if we cannot

find enough similarities to develop guidelines for compost utilization, then this

research is unproductive from a practical standpoint.

Responses to composts are often more pronounced when crops are grown less

intensively or are under an environmental stress. In their review, Gallardo-Lara and

Nogales (1987) summarized vegetable and agronomic crop responses to MSW

compost as being more positive in poorer soils, and reported that mixtures of

synthetic fertilizers and composts are usually more efficient than either alone in

meeting crop nutritional requirements. Gray and Tawhid (1995) reported that pod

yields of bush snap beans were increased in a dry season, but not in a wetter one,

by a leaf compost mulch. Buchanan and Gliessman (1991) reported that broccoli N

use efficiency was highest in treatments that combined N from a synthetic source

with compost.

Another consideration is that nutrient levels in composts are not always in the

correct proportions for plant growth. There is a potential for buildup of some nutrient

concentrations in the soil if composts are applied at high enough rates to supply the

most limiting nutrients, usually N. Excessive concentrations of plant nutrient elements raise the potential for environmental damage and may threaten the safety of

those consuming the vegetables. With increased interest in food safety and nutrition,

researchers are beginning to report the concentrations of elements and compounds

in plants that have the potential to be beneficial or to cause harm to humans who

are consuming the vegetables. Kao (1993) stated that annual applications of sawdust/swine waste compost at high rates (25 or 50 Mg·ha–1) to acid soils would

eventually raise soil Zn and Cu to toxic levels. In another study, a compost and a

vermicompost decreased the nitrate concentration, but increased the K concentration

of lettuce leaf tissue, when compared with synthetic fertilizers (Ricci et al., 1995).

Although much evidence points toward soil and environmental improvements

with compost use, as well as crop yield increases in many instances, the use of

compost must increase profits in order for it to become an accepted practice among

vegetable growers. Kostov et al. (1995) reported that it was more economical to use

composting vegetable residues for greenhouse cucumber production than a manured

soil. Roe and Cornforth (1997) reported that uncomposted dairy manure and dairy

manure compost both increased growth, yield, and net income from melons (Cucumis

melo L.) and broccoli in a low-input growing system, but it was less expensive to

use the uncomposted manure. However, food safety concerns prevent the use of

uncomposted manures directly on vegetable crops.

Although compost is organic matter, it can contain potentially harmful pollutants,

such as heavy metals and human pathogens, which must be prevented from entering



© 2001 by CRC Press LLC



the food chain. Proper handling of feedstocks, composting at correct temperatures,

and testing can eliminate most of the pathogens (Farrell, 1993). Concentrations of

metals in compost can be controlled by proper choice of feedstocks and awareness

of soil–plant reactions to additions of composts (Chaney and Ryan, 1993).

At present, most vegetable growers who use composts are smaller, more specialized, and often grow organically, whether by choice or due to lack of resources.

To encourage compost use by larger commercial growers, more evidence for the

benefits of compost utilization, especially economic benefits, must be developed.



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their suitability for use as fertilizer materials for vegetable crop production. Acta Horticulturae 302: 203–215.

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CHAPTER



6



Compost Utilization in Ornamental and

Nursery Crop Production Systems

George E. Fitzpatrick



CONTENTS

I.

II.

III.

IV.



Introduction

Nursery Crop Production

Development of Commercial Compost Production Systems

Challenges to Successful Compost Use

A. Nutritional Content

B. Soluble Salt Levels

C. Compaction

D. Phytotoxicity

V.

Important Factors in a Container Growing Medium

VI. Using Compost Products Beneficially in Nursery Crop Production

A. Field Nursery Production

B. Container Production

1. Temperate Woody Ornamentals

2. Subtropical and Tropical Ornamentals

3. Floriculture and Foliage Crops

VII. The Future of Compost Use in Ornamental Plant Production

References



I. INTRODUCTION

Growers of ornamental nursery crops are regarded as high-priority potential

customers by people who manufacture and market compost products. Nursery crops,



© 2001 by CRC Press LLC