Lesson 22. Gerunds, Infinitives, and Simple Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SECTION 2: STRUCTURE

You may also see items that focus on passive infinitives. A passive infinitive consists of the words to +

be + past participle.

Nancy Hong was the only person to be asked to speak at the ceremony.

Simple forms are the base forms of verbs; they consist of the infinitive without the word to: be, go, give,

and build.

Simple forms are used after the causative verbs have, make, and let and after the phrase would

rather.

Mark had the carpenter repair the door.

His father makes him study hard.

Penny let her son go on the trip.

She’d rather go jogging than use the exercise machines.



COMMON VERBS THAT TAKE VERBAL OBJECTS

Verbs Used with

Gerunds

admit

anticipate

avoid

consider

deny

delay

discuss

dislike

enjoy

finish

justify

postpone

practice

resist

resume

risk

quit

recommend

suggest

understand



Verbs Used with Infinitives

agree

aim

allow

appear

arrange

ask

attempt

cause

choose

claim

convince

decide

deserve

enable

expect

hope



instruct

know (how)

learn (how)

need

permit

persuade

prepare

promise

require

seem

teach (how_

tell

tend

use

vote

warn



Verbs Used with

Simple Forms

have

let

make

would rather



SENTENCE COMPLETION

Most often, the gerund or infinitive is missing from the sentence. In some cases, a complete gerund or

infinitive phrase or some other portion of the sentence phrase may be needed in order to correctly

complete the sentence.



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LESSON 22: GERUNDS, INFINITIVES, AND SIMPLE FORMS



Sample Items

____________________ the eggs of most birds must be kept warm.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



Proper development

By properly developing,

They develop properly

To develop properly,



The correct answer is (D). The only one of these four phrases listed here that can show purpose

is choice (D), an infinitive. This expression means, In order to develop properly.

In 1959, the political philosopher Hannah Arendt became the first woman ________________

a full professor at Princeton University.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



to appoint

was appointed

to be appointed

an appointment as



The correct answer is (C). After a noun phrase such as the first woman, an infinitive is used as

an adjective phrase. Because a passive form is needed (Hannah Arendt receives the action; she

doesn’t perform the action), choice (A) is not the correct infinitive form. Choice (C), a passive

infinitive, is best.

The ear is the organ of hearing, but it also plays a role in ___________ balance.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



maintaining

it maintains

to maintain

maintained



The correct answer is (A). A gerund is used correctly after a preposition. Choices (B), (C), and

(D) would not be appropriate after a preposition.



EXERCISE 22.1

Focus: Identifying errors and correct forms of gerunds, infinitives, and simple forms

Directions: Underline the form that best completes each sentence.

1. Sports parachutes are relatively easy

(controlling/to control).



5. The Wampanoag Indians taught the Pilgrims

how (growing/to grow) corn.



2. Sleeve bearings let pistons (to move/move)

back and forth.



6. Frogs and certain kinds of birds use their

tongues (to catch/catch) insects.



3. One of the most important steps in

(producing/to produce) a motion picture is

film editing.



7. Modems permit computers (communicating/to communicate) with one another over

telephone lines.



4. An opera singer is required (having/to have)

a powerful and beautiful voice.



8. Smells can be more effective than any other

sensory stimuli in vividly (bringing/bring)

back memories.



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SECTION 2: STRUCTURE

9. Isadora Martinez invented a knee transplant

that allows people with severe arthritis (to

bend/bend) their knees easily.



11. Heavy spring snows may cause the

branches of trees (snap/to snap).

12. Modern race cars store fuel in rubber

bladders that are almost impossible (rupturing/to rupture).



10. A sudden sound can make a golfer (to

miss/miss) a shot.



EXERCISE 22.2

Focus: Completing structure problems involving infinitive and gerund phrases (Note: One or two of the

items in this exercise do NOT focus on infinitives or gerunds. These items are marked in the answer key

with asterisks.)

Directions: For Sentence Completion items, mark the answer choice that correctly completes the

sentence. For Error Identification items, decide which of the four underlined words or phrases—(A),

(B), (C), or (D)—correctly completes the sentence.

6. A climbing helmet ____________ protection

for a rock-climber’s head from falling rocks

and other hazards.



1. The most widely used material for package

A

B

C

consumer goods is cardboard.

D



(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



2. _______________ for a career in dance

generally begins at an early age.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



People train

That people train

If training

Training



7. Power tools require careful handling

________ injuries.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



3. A baby’s first teeth ___________ are

generally the lower incisors.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



appearance

appear

to appear

in appearing



by avoiding

they avoid

to avoid

that avoid



8. Geothermal energy is energy obtaining by

A

B

using heat from the earth’s interior.

C

D



4. One of the latest methods of quarrying

A

B

stone is to cutting the stone with a jet

C

D

torch.



9. An electromagnet is created ___________

electrical current through a coil of wire.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



5. In 1944, biologist Charles Michener devised

A

a system for to classify the approximately

B

C

20,000 species of bees.

D



by passing

passes by

to be passed

passed



10. ________________________ at home

requires only three types of chemicals,

several pieces of simple equipment, and

running water.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



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to provide

provides

providing

that provides



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For the development of film

To develop film

When film is developed

In developing film



LESSON 22: GERUNDS, INFINITIVES, AND SIMPLE FORMS

17. The process of _______________ by hand

has changed little since the fifteenth

century.



11. Brown lung is a respiratory disease caused

A

B

by inhaling dust from cotton or some

C

another fiber.

D



(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



12. The purpose of cost accounting is

_________________________ involved in

producing and selling a good or service.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



18. Robert A. Moog developed an electronic

A

device that could be used for play

B

C

synthesized music.

D



as a determination of its costs

the costs determined

that determines the costs

to determine the costs



19. __________________________ often obtain

funds from the sale of stocks.



13. __________________ was one of the most

difficult tasks pioneers faced on their

journeys west.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



to bind books

binding books

books are bound

bound books



(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



Crossing rivers

While crossing rivers

Rivers being crossed

By crossing rivers



For corporations to operate

The operation of corporations

Corporations operate by

To operate, corporations



20. A crescent wrench has adjustable jaws for

__________ a nut, bolt, or pipe.



14. It is the facets cut into a diamond that

A

B

C

make it to sparkle .

D



(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



15. Bathe in mineral water has long been

A

B

believed to have beneficial effects .

C

D



to grip

they grip

gripping

gripped



16. Energy can be defined as the ability

_______________.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



do working

to do work

doing work

work to be done



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SECTION 2: STRUCTURE



REVIEW TEST E: STRUCTURE

Directions: For Sentence Completion items, select the answer choice—(A), (B), (C), or (D)—which

correctly completes the sentence. For Error Identification items, select the answer choice—(A), (B),

(C), or (D)—that corresponds to the underlined portion of the sentence that would not be considered correct.

8. ____________________ on barren slopes

can help prevent erosion.



1. ____________, an organism must be able to

adapt to changing factors in its environment.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



If survival

For surviving

To survive

It survives



9. Animals that hibernate usually eat large

A

B

numbers of food in the autumn.

C

D



2. Bricks can be made from many difference

A

B

C

types of clay .

D

3. The narrow blades of speed skates allow

____________________ speeds of up to 30

miles per hour.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



10. Lightly, sandy soil absorbs water more

A

B

quickly than clay or loam.

C

D



for skaters maintaining

skaters to maintain

skaters maintain

maintenance by skaters



11. In 1870 Hiram R. Revels ______________

the first African American to be elected to

the U.S. Senate.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



4. The game backgammon has been playing

A

B

C

since ancient times .

D

5. The Mummers’ Parade has ____________

every year in Philadelphia on New Year’s

Day since 1901.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



becoming

became

to have become

has become



12. During the Depression of the 1930s, many

A

B

artists were giving jobs by the Federal Arts

C

D

Project.



holding

been holding

held

been held



13. Sand dunes are made of loose sand

__________ up by the action of the wind.



6. Before the late eighteenth century, most

A

textiles were done at home .

B

C

D



(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



7. Political science, alike the other social

A

B

sciences, is not an exact science.

C

D



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Planting trees

For trees to be planted

In order to plant trees

Trees are planted



it builds

builds

is building

built



14. A feeding animal will usually permit

A

competitors approaching only within a

B

certain area, the boundaries of which are

C

called its feeding territory.

D



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LESSON 22: GERUNDS, INFINITIVES, AND SIMPLE FORMS

21. A deep-tissue massage is a type of massage

therapy __________________ on one part of

the body, such as the lower back.



15. It is a chemical called capsaicin that gives

A

B

hot peppers their spice flavor.

C

D



(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



16. Amber is a hard, yellowish-brown

___________________ from the resin of

pine trees that lived millions of years ago.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)



substance formed

to form a substance

substance has formed

forming a substance



its concentration is

concentrating

why it concentrates

to be concentrated



22. Some plants and insects exhibit so high

A

B

degree of interdependence that the

elimination of one results in the elimination

C

of the other .

D



17. The University of Wisconsin was the first

A

school to make a serious effort to teaching

B

C

students public administration .

D



23. Founded in 1620, Plymouth was the

A

soonest of the five colonies established by

B

C

D

the Pilgrims in Massachusetts.



18. Diaries and journals writing during Colonial

A

B

times provide the best records of that era .

C

D



24. Trucks can be used to transport a wide

A

B

C

various of cargoes.

D



19. Snowshoes let a person to walk on snow

A

without sinking into it because they

B

C

distribute the person’s weight over a wide

D

area.



25. The astronomer George Hale was a pioneer

A

B

in the art of photograph the sun.

C

D



20. Beams of ultrasonic sound waves can be

A

send through pieces of metal to detect

B

C

D

flaws.



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LESSON 23

Pronouns

Pronoun errors in written expression involve several types of pronouns:

• Personal pronouns

(he, she, it, they, and so on)

• Reflexive pronouns

(himself, herself, itself, themselves, and so on)

• Relative pronouns (adjective-clause markers)

(who, whose, which, that, and so on)

• Demonstrative pronouns

(this, that, these, those)

For the purposes of this lesson, possessive adjectives (his house, their bicycles) are considered personal

pronouns, and demonstrative adjectives (that book, those horses) are considered demonstrative pronouns.

The greatest number of errors involve personal pronouns.



ERRORS IN PRONOUN/NOUN AGREEMENT

A pronoun must agree with the noun to which it refers (the pronoun’s referent).

Most agreement errors with personal pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and demonstrative pronouns

consist of a singular pronoun referring to a plural noun or a plural pronoun referring to a singular noun.

Agreement errors with relative pronouns usually involve the use of who to refer to things or which

to refer to persons. (Note: The relative pronoun that can be used in certain sentences to refer to both

persons and things.)

Another error involves the use of this or these in place of that and those. (This and these are used to

refer to things that are perceived as close in time or space; that and those are used to refer to things that

are perceived as distant in time or space.)



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LESSON 23: PRONOUNS



Sample Items

Jackrabbits have powerful rear legs that enable it to leap long distances .

A

B

C

D

The correct answer is (C). The pronoun referring to the plural noun Jackrabbits must be plural.

The best way for children to learn science is for them to perform experiments himself .

A

B

C

D

The correct answer is (D). The referent is plural (children), so the reflexive pronouns must also

be plural (themselves) to agree with it.

The Canadian Shield is a huge , rocky region who curves around Hudson Bay like a giant

A

B

C

D

horseshoe.

The correct answer is (B). The referent for the pronoun who is region. To agree with the

referent, the relative pronoun that must be used. The pronoun who can refer only to a person.

Trademarks enable a company to distinguish its products from these of another company.

A

B

C

D

The correct answer is (C). The demonstrative these cannot be used to refer to the products of

another company. The demonstrative those should be used instead.



ERRORS IN PRONOUN FORM

These errors involve personal pronouns. A subject form such as he might be used in place of an object

form such as him, or a possessive pronoun such as hers might be used in place of a possessive adjective

such as her. This type of pronoun error is usually easy to spot.

Sample Item

Herman Melville gathered material for him novels, including Moby Dick, during his years

A

B

C

at sea .

D

The correct answer is (B). The possessive form his, not the object form him, is required.



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SECTION 2: STRUCTURE



INCORRECT TYPE OF PRONOUN

In some sentences, the wrong type of pronoun is used. For example, a reflexive pronoun might be used

when a personal pronoun is needed, or a personal pronoun used when a relative pronoun is required.

Sample Items

As larvae, barnacles are free-swimming, but as adults they attach them to stones, docks, and

A

B

C

hulls of ships .

D

The correct answer is (C). The reflexive pronoun is required because the subject and object are

the same entity: they attach themselves.

A barometer is a device it is used to measure atmospheric pressure .

A

B

C

D

The correct answer is (B). A personal pronoun (it) cannot be used to connect an adjective

clause to the rest of the sentence. A relative pronoun (which or that) must be used instead.



INCORRECT INCLUSION OF PRONOUNS

Some errors involve the unnecessary use of pronouns. Often, this type of error occurs when a personal

pronoun is used as a subject in a sentence that already has a noun subject. It may also involve a personal

pronoun used unnecessarily in a relative clause.

In a few items, a relative pronoun is used unnecessarily.

Sample Items

Block Island in Long Island Sound it is surrounded by cold, dangerous waters.

A

B

C

D

The correct answer is (B). The subject of the sentence is Block Island; the personal pronoun it is

an unnecessary repetition of the subject.

Dutch elm disease, which it is caused by a fungus, can destroy a tree within four weeks.

A

B

C

D

The correct answer is (A). The relative pronoun which is the true subject of the relative clause;

the personal pronoun it is not needed.

Certain types of turtles that may live as long as 100 years .

A

B

C

D

The correct answer is (B). The relative pronoun that is unnecessary in this sentence because

there is only one verb (may live). A sentence that contains a relative clause must have a verb in each

clause.



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LESSON 23: PRONOUNS



EXERCISE 23.1

Focus: Identifying and correcting pronoun agreement

Directions: If the underlined form is correct, mark the sentence C. If the underlined form is

incorrect, mark the sentence X and write a correction for the underlined form in the blank after the

sentence. Then circle the referent (the noun to which the pronoun refers).



______



1. Unlike other marsupial animals, the opossum does not transport their babies in a pouch.



______



2. A talus is an accumulation of rock fragments found at the base of a cliff or on a slope

beneath them.



______



3. Investment banking is concerned with the sale of government bonds, and they also deals

with corporate stocks and bonds.



______



4. Compared to the fossil record of animals, that of plants is relatively skimpy.



______



5. The emerald gets their beautiful green color from titanium and chromium impurities in the

stone.



______



6. The viola is larger and heavier than the violin, and she has a darker, somewhat nasal tone.



______



7. Storms on the planet Saturn may be larger than the planet Earth itself.



______



8. The molecules of a liquid are held together tighter than that of a gas.



______



9. Ducks make nests out of leaves and its own feathers.



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SECTION 2: STRUCTURE



EXERCISE 23.2

Focus: Identifying and correcting errors involving incorrect types and forms of pronouns

Directions: If the underlined form is correct, mark the sentence C. If the underlined form is

incorrect, mark the sentence X and write a correction for the underlined form in the blank after the

sentence.



______



1. Artist Margaret Leng Tan combined dance and piano-playing in her performances.



______



2. Years of breeding domestic rabbits has given their softer, finer fur than wild rabbits.



______



3. New England poet Edwin A. Robinson moved to New York City in 1896 and devoted himself

to his writing.



______



4. There are between 100 and 400 billion stars in ours galaxy, the Milky Way.



______



5. The atoms of a crystal always arrange them into a specific array, called a lattice.



______



6. Fred Astaire and Gene Kelly were basically tap dancers, but their both added some ballet

movements to their dance steps.



______



7. Attorney Clarence Darrow was known for him defense of unpopular persons and causes.



______



8. Savannah, Georgia, has preserved to a remarkable degree it historic houses and famous gardens.



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