Case 5.1 Open Doors: Using NAICS and the American Community Survey

revIew QueStIonS/applICatIonS



1. Based on the output from their data search, the

Fulkersons have a number of variables that can be

used to assess the market potential for furniture stores

in each market. What are these variables?

2. What is wrong with evaluating the MSAs based on the

number of furniture stores already existing in those

geographical areas? What additional information

could the Fulkersons use as a better metric for



143



determining “retail saturation” for furniture stores in

each MSA?

3. Find the information you proposed in question 2 and

enter the data in an Excel spreadsheet. Create the formula to calculate your “Index of Retail Furniture Store

Saturation.”

4. Based on your results in question 3, which MSA should

the Fulkersons select to open the next Open Doors?



case 5.2 integrated case

Global Motors

Nick Thomas is an authority on automobile manufacturing.

Like many good managers, he also knows he doesn’t know

everything. A number of issues may influence consumers’

decisions regarding the cars they will demand in the future.

Certainly, the general level of the economy, as measured

by GDP, unemployment rate, and average incomes, affect

the number and types of vehicles purchased. Also, experience shows that specific issues are closely tied to automobile demand. Gasoline prices have always impacted market

demand for various types of vehicles. Nick also knows consumers’ perceptions and expectations about future gasoline

prices are as important as the actual prices when it comes

to car sales.

A disturbing topic on which Nick has little real knowledge is global warming. He has read articles in the newspaper about climate change, and he knows it has become

a target of political debate. So far, he doesn’t sense great

concern among the public, but he knows that if evidence of

global warming continues to grow and if consumers come

to believe that gasoline emissions contribute to climate

change, these trends will impact the automotive industry

like nothing we’ve seen before. To Nick, global warming

is the “800-pound gorilla in the room” that most people

are ignoring or discounting. He hopes that global warming

will not occur and what warming we do experience will



ultimately be attributed to a normal change in climate that

the Earth experiences from time to time. But Nick knows

he cannot rely on his hopes; he needs better information if

he is to plan for the future properly.

1. Go to secondary data sources such as your university’s

online databases. You may want to talk to your librarian

or search online for the most appropriate databases for

this topic. Search for some articles on “global warming” or “climate change.” Take notes on the topics that

are covered in the titles or abstracts and create an outline of the topics covered. This will help you become

familiar with subject in greater detail.

2. Scan several of the articles you’ve found and outline

key points made in the articles. Organize the articles

based on the topics covered and write a five-page paper

on the topic using subheadings to cover the different

issues you’ve discovered.

3. Evaluate the sources you’ve used in your paper according to the criteria outlined in this chapter. Do

you believe some sources of information are more

trustworthy than others? How would you determine

trustworthiness?

4. If Nick Thomas wants to learn how consumers’ attitudes

toward global warming are related to car-buying intentions,

where might he find this data?



CHAPTER



6



Learning Objectives

• Tounderstandbasicdifferences

betweenquantitativeand

qualitativeresearchtechniques



Qualitative Research

Techniques

Turning Qualitative Buzz

into Business Insights



• Tolearntheprosandconsof

usingobservationasameansof

gatheringdata



If you have a Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, or

LinkedIn account, you are already contributing



• Todiscoverwhatfocusgroups

areandhowtheyareconducted

andanalyzed



to the billions of new social media data points

that are created every year. Millions of websites

allow users to formally discuss the perceived



• Tobecomeacquaintedwith

onlinefocusgroupsandtheir

advantages

• Tobecomefamiliarwithother

qualitativemethodsusedby

marketingresearchers



“Where We are”

1 Establish the need for marketing



research.



Annie Pettit, PhD,

Chief Research

Officer, Conversition.

A Research Now

partner company.



ual brands, as well as to make casual, off the

cuff, silly, and random remarks about brands,

products, and people. But whether it’s a wellthought-out essay or a phrase jotted in haste,

these opinions are a treasure trove of instantly



available data ready to be mined and measured.

Social media research offers many advantages to researchers. Because historical data is readily available, researchers can access pre/



2 Define the problem.



post measurement data even if an event was discovered after the fact.



3 Establish research objectives.



And, though surveys have been and continue to be extremely popular



4 Determine research design.

5 Identify information types and



sources.







pros and cons of specific features of individ-



6 Determine methods of accessing



data.



for eliciting opinions, social media offers people a place to share their

unstructured and unelicited opinions, perhaps, at times, in ways that

are more honest and heartfelt than surveys. Further, where traditional

research methods must work under responder time and fatigue constraints, social media research has no similar barriers. When millions of



7 Design data collection forms.



people talk about a brand, they invariably touch on thousands of topics,



8 Determine sample plan and size.



something no survey or focus group can manage without causing undue



9 Collect data.



strain on their respondents.



10 Analyze data.

11 Prepare and present the final



research report.



Fortunately, many companies with social media expertise have made

the process of collecting and coding these millions of records much easier. Basic products are available that allow you to read, monitor, and track

opinions, while more advanced products align themselves with traditional



market research processes, including sampling, weighting, scaling,

and coding. The key to success with this methodology is the same as

any other: Begin with a research objective and the results will follow.

in association with Research Now



Conversition is a market research company that specializes in social



Visit Conversition at www.conversition.com



media listening. It applies proven research principles to the collection

and analysis of social media data, including Twitter tweets, Facebook status updates, Wordpress blogs, and more. Through a multi-stage process, brand opinions are collected, cleaned of

spam and irrelevant data, scored into a 5-point sentiment scale, coded into category-relevant



Text and images: By

permission, Annie Pettit,

Conversition.



variables, and made available in an easy-to-use web portal. Our listening and survey tools are

complementary to traditional market research methodologies and will help you develop a wellrounded view of consumer conversations about your client’s product, service, or brand.



Q



ualitative research methods are

sometimes referred to as the “soft

side” of marketing research simply because the findings typically are not

quantitative. Most recently, however, marketing researchers have learned how to use

tools such as neuroimaging, eye tracking,

and facial expression recognition to understand marketing phenomena, so newer

qualitative research techniques are based

on medical or other such science. As you

will learn, qualitative research is an important tool that provides clients with insights

not found in quantitative research. This

chapter discusses how to distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research

as well as the various methods used in conducting qualitative research. Each qualitative method has its place in the marketing

research process, and each has its unique

advantages and disadvantages as well. Because focus groups are a popular qualitative

marketing research technique, an in-depth

discussion of them is included. We begin

with a discussion of quantitative, qualitative, and pluralistic research.



Photo: kbuntu/Fotolia

145



146



Chapter 6 • Qualitative researCh teChniQues



Quantitative, Qualitative, and Pluralistic Research

The means of data

collection during the

research process can be

classified into two broad

categories: quantitative

and qualitative.

Quantitative research

is defined as research

involving the

administration of a set of

structured questions with

predetermined response

options to a large number

of respondents.



Qualitative research

involves collecting,

analyzing, and interpreting

data by observing what

people do and say.



Qualitative research

techniques afford rich

insight into consumer

behavior.



Pluralistic research

is defined as the

combination of qualitative

and quantitative research

methods to gain the

advantages of both.



The means of data collection during the research process can be classified into two broad

categories: quantitative and qualitative.

There are vast differences between these two methods, and it is necessary to understand

their special characteristics to make the right selection. To start, we briefly define these two

approaches, and then we describe pluralistic research.

Quantitative research is the traditional mainstay of the research industry, and it is sometimes referred to as “survey research.” For our purposes, quantitative research is defined

as research involving the administration of a set of structured questions with predetermined

response options to a large number of respondents. When you think of quantitative research,

you might envision a panel company whose members complete an online survey. That is,

quantitative research often involves a sizable representative sample of the population and a

formalized procedure for gathering data. The purpose of quantitative research is specific, and

this research is used when the manager and researcher have agreed that precise information is

needed. Data format and sources are clear and well defined, and the compilation and formatting of the data gathered follows an orderly procedure that is largely numerical in nature.

Qualitative research, in contrast, involves collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data by

observing what people do and say. Observations and statements are free form or nonstandardized because questions and observations are open ended. Qualitative data can be quantified,

but only after a translation process has taken place. For example, if you asked five people to

express their opinions on a topic such as gun control or promoting alcoholic beverages to

college students, you would probably get five different statements. But after studying each

response, you could characterize each one as “positive,” “negative,” or “neutral.” This translation step would not be necessary if you instructed them to choose predetermined responses

such as “yes” or “no.” Any study that is conducted using an observational technique or unstructured questioning can be classified as qualitative research, which is becoming increasingly popular in a number of research situations.1

Why would you want to use such a “soft” approach? Occasionally, marketing researchers find that a large-scale survey is inappropriate. For instance, Procter & Gamble™ may be

interested in improving its Ultra Tide laundry detergent, so it invites a group of homemakers

to brainstorm how Ultra Tide could perform better or how its packaging could be improved or

discuss other features of the detergent. These ideas may have been the origins of Tide Stain

Release or Tide To Go. Listening to the market in this way can generate excellent packaging, product design, or product positioning ideas. As another example, if the P&G marketing

group were developing a special end-of-aisle display for Tide, it might want to test one version in an actual supermarket environment. It could place one in a Safeway grocery store in

a San Francisco suburb and videotape shoppers as they encountered the display. The videos

would then be reviewed to determine what types of responses occurred. For instance, did

shoppers stop there? Did they read the copy on the display? Did they pick up the displayed

product and look at it? Qualitative research techniques afford rich insight into consumer behavior.2 An example of an application of qualitative research with a global market segment,

namely, China, is offered in Marketing Research Insight 6.1.

With the rush to online quantitative research that produces huge amounts of data, qualitative research is sometimes overlooked.3 However, it is our goal in this chapter to emphasize

the value of qualitative research techniques and the need for qualitative research and quantitative research to work hand in hand.

Although there are proponents of both types of research, many marketing researchers

have adopted pluralistic research, which is defined as the combination of qualitative and

quantitative research methods with the aim of gaining the advantages of both. With pluralistic

research, it is common to begin with exploratory qualitative techniques as, for example, indepth interviews of selected dealers or a series of focus group discussions with customers to



Quantitative, Qualitative, and pluralistiC researCh



Marketing research insight 6.1



147



Global Application



Using Photo-Elicitation to Understand Global Markets

Photo-elicitation is a qualitative research technique where people are instructed to take photographs of a consumption experience, and they are later engaged in an in-depth interview to

find out their feelings, thoughts, and actions for each picture. It

is a way to construct the complete consumption experience because the informant identifies what scenes or activities are significant by deciding to take the pictures. The researcher is then

assured that there is some meaningfulness to each picture.

With careful and skillful probes, the researcher encourages the

informant to divulge the underlying meaning. Venkatraman

and Nelson describe the method this way: “Photo-elicitation

also elicits rich descriptions of the physical layout and emotional reactions to the servicescape by facilitating deep dives by

the informants or helping them go below conscious, surfacelevel observations to connect to deeper, submerged feelings,

symbols, myths, and metaphors.”4 Photo-elicitation is an especially easy-to-implement research technique because of the

widespread adoption of digital photography technology.

These authors point out that a great many food companies

such as Starbucks™, McDonald’s®, or Kentucky Fried Chicken®

are rapidly penetrating global markets such as China. It is important that these companies truly understand how their global

markets are experiencing their products and services because

when a product from one culture is introduced to another culture, the consumer experience is often surprisingly different

for consumers in the second culture. Thus, these authors conducted a photo-elicitation of the experiences of young urban

Chinese consumers with Starbucks. Coffee is not a typical Chinese drink, and coffee shops are a new phenomenon in China.

In addition, the Chinese culture discourages sharing feelings

and opinions with strangers. So, the photographs became focal

activities that the Chinese informants could talk about without

violating cultural norms. The findings of this study paints a picture of the Chinese Starbucks experience, which is outlined in

the following bullets.

•



•



Starbucks is a safe haven from the chaos and noise of crowds

in the streets; it provides warmth, security, and privacy.

Starbucks is like home; it is attractive and charming.



With photo-elicitation people talk about the photos they

took of a recent consumption experience.



Photo: Kzenon Shutterstock.com

•



•



•



•



•



Starbucks is a place to relax; the seating and décor is

inviting and calming.

Starbucks is a private, yet social, place where young

Chinese people can gather with their close friends and chat.

Starbucks is romantic; the furniture arrangement allows

for couples to have intimate “happy chats.”

Starbucks is a way to learn more about America, which is

an interesting observation because Starbucks is supposed

to embody Italian espresso bars.

Starbucks is exotic. It is very different to Chinese because the

coffee and other offerings are new and strange to them.



That final point has important implications for Starbucks because

the Chinese informants expressed that their initial encounter with

Starbucks was bewildering and frustrating. They did not know

how to order, what to order, how to drink the coffee, or what to

do with the sugar and milk. They had to seek advice from their

friends or watch the behavior of other Starbucks customers. Fortunately for Starbucks, its other aspects were strong attractions

that countered these negatives of these initial encounters.



understand how they perceive your product and service as compared with those of competitors. Even an observational study could be used if it is helpful in understanding the problem

and bringing to the surface issues in the research project. These activities often help crystallize the problem or otherwise highlight factors and considerations that might be overlooked if

the researcher had rushed into a full-scale survey. The qualitative phase serves as a foundation

for the quantitative phase of the research project because it provides the researcher with firsthand knowledge of the research problem. Armed with this knowledge, the researcher’s design



148



Chapter 6 • Qualitative researCh teChniQues



and execution of the quantitative phase are invariably superior to what they might have been

without the qualitative phase. With pluralistic research, the qualitative phase serves to frame

the subsequent quantitative phase, and in some cases, a qualitative phase is applied after a

quantitative study to help the researcher understand the findings in the quantitative phase.5 As

an example, The Arizona Republic newspaper has used online focus groups for brainstorming, and the outcomes of these sessions are then used to devise online surveys. Through this

pluralistic approach, the Showtime network investigated different lifestyle types of its Nurse

Jackie show viewers: those who watch on demand, those preferring to watch live, those who

use DVRs, and those using a combination of the viewing platforms.6 The on-demand and

DVR viewers really valued the ability to pause, rewind, and reexperience; the live watchers

eagerly anticipated the premiere shows; the DVR users had constraints and needed the convenience of recorded episodes; and the combination viewers had complicated schedules and

used whatever platform worked that week.



One qualitative method is

to observe phenomena.

Researchers observe

behavior and record what

they see.



ObservatiOn techniques

We begin our description of qualitative research techniques with observation methods,

which are techniques in which the researcher relies on his or her powers of observation to

obtain information. Observation requires something to observe, and researchers typically use

video or audio recorders, photographs, handwritten notes, or some other tangible record of

what is observed. As we describe each observation technique, you will see that each is unique

in how it obtains observations.



Four general ways of

organizing observations

are (1) direct versus

indirect, (2) covert versus

overt, (3) structured versus

unstructured, and (4) in situ

versus invented.



types of Observation At first glance, it may seem that observation studies can occur

without any structure; however, it is important to adhere to a plan so that the observations

are consistent and comparisons or generalizations can be made without worrying about any

conditions of the observation method that might confound the findings. There are four general

ways of making observations: (1) direct versus indirect, (2) overt versus covert, (3) structured

versus unstructured, and (4) in situ versus invented.



Observing behavior as

it occurs is called direct

observation.



Direct versus indirect Observing behavior as it occurs is called direct observation.7 For

example, if we are interested in finding out how much shoppers squeeze tomatoes to assess

their freshness, we can observe people actually picking up the tomatoes. Direct observation

has been used by Kellogg to understand breakfast rituals, by a Swiss chocolate maker to study

the behavior of “chocoholics,” and by the U.S. Post Office’s advertising agency to come up

with the advertising slogan “We Deliver.”8 It has also been used by General Mills to understand how children eat breakfast, leading to the launch of Go-Gurt, a midmorning snack for

schoolchildren.9

Some behaviors, such as past actions, cannot be directly observed. In those cases, we

must rely on indirect observation, which involves observing the effects or results of the

behavior rather than the behavior itself. Types of indirect observations include archives and

physical traces.



With indirect observation,

the researcher observes

the effects or results of the

behavior rather than the

behavior itself. Types

of indirect observations

include archives and

physical traces.



Archives Archives are secondary sources, such as historical records, that can be applied to



the present problem. These sources contain a wealth of information and should not be overlooked or underestimated. Many types of archives exist. For example, records of sales calls

may be inspected to determine how often salespeople make cold calls. Many companies mine

scanner data for insight on the effects of price changes, promotion campaigns, or package size

changes. Scanner data is an archive of the purchasing behaviors of consumers.

Physical Traces Physical traces are tangible evidence of some past event. For example, we



might turn to “garbology” (observing the trash of subjects being studied) as a way of finding

out how much recycling of plastic milk bottles occurs. A soft drink company might do a litter audit to assess how much impact its aluminum cans have on the countryside. A fast-food



Quantitative, Qualitative, and pluralistiC researCh



149



company such as Wendy’s might measure the amount of graffiti on buildings located adjacent

to prospective location sites as a means of estimating the crime potential for each site.10

covert versus Overt With covert observation, the subject is unaware that he or she is

being observed. An example is a “mystery shopper” who is hired by a retail store chain to record and report on sales clerks’ assistance and courtesy. One-way mirrors and hidden cameras

are a few of the other ways used to prevent subjects from becoming aware that they are being

observed. The aim of this approach is to observe typical behaviors; if the subjects were aware

they were being watched, they might change their behavior, resulting in observations of atypical behavior. If you were a store clerk, how would you act if the department manager told you

he would be watching you for the next hour? You would probably be on your best behavior for

those 60 minutes. Covert observation has proved illuminating in studies of parents and children shopping together in supermarkets.11 With direct questions, parents might feel compelled

to say that their children are always on their best behavior while shopping.

Sometimes it is impossible for the respondent to be unaware that someone is watching. Examples of overt observation, all of which require the subjects’ knowledge, include laboratory

settings, recordings of sales calls, People Meters (Nielsen Media Research’s device that is attached to a television set to record when and to what station a set is tuned), and Arbitron’s Personal Portable Meter. Because people might be influenced by knowing they are being observed,

it is wise to always minimize the presence of the observer to the maximum extent possible.

structured versus unstructured When using structured observation techniques, the

researcher identifies beforehand which behaviors are to be observed and recorded. All other

behaviors are “ignored.” Often a checklist or a standardized observation form is used to isolate the observer’s attention to specific factors. These highly structured observations typically

require a minimum of effort on the part of the observer.

Unstructured observation places no restriction on what the observer notes. All behavior

in the episode under study is monitored. The observer watches the situation and records what

he or she deems interesting or relevant. Of course, the observer is thoroughly briefed on the

area of general concern. This type of observation is often used in exploratory research. For

example, Black & Decker® might send someone to observe carpenters working at various job

sites as a means of better understanding how the tools are used and to help generate ideas as

to how to design the tools for increased safety.

in situ versus invented With in situ observation, the researcher observes the behavior exactly as it happens. For instance, a mother and small daughter are observed in a store

buying sandals for the daughter or a family meal is observed from start to finish as it takes

place in that family’s home. Mystery shopping is done in situ. Midas improved its service

quality by having customers make videos of themselves as they made car service appointments.12 Invented observation occurs when the researcher creates the situation. For example,

a researcher might ask people to make a video as they try out a new toilet bowl cleaner. A

pharmaceutical company that asked osteoporosis sufferers to make collages describing their

feelings about taking their medications found that patients are reluctant to question their doctors about prescribed medications.13

apprOpriate cOnDitiOns fOr the use Of ObservatiOn

Certain conditions must be met before a researcher can successfully use observation as a

marketing research tool: The event must occur during a relatively short time interval, and the

observed behavior must occur in a public setting. In addition, observation is typically used

when the possibility of faulty recall rules out collecting information by asking the subject.

Short time interval means that the event must begin and end within a reasonably short

time span. Examples include a shopping trip in a supermarket, waiting in a teller line at a



When the respondent

knows he or she is being

observed, this form of

research is known as overt

observation.

The researcher identifies

beforehand which

behaviors are to be

observed and recorded in

structured observation.

In using unstructured

observation, there are no

predetermined restrictions

on what the observer

records.



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Chapter 6 • Qualitative researCh teChniQues



Observation is used with

behaviors that take place

over a short time interval,

such as shopping in a

supermarket and waiting

in a bank teller line.

Public behavior refers to

behavior that occurs in

a setting the researcher

can readily observe such

as shopping in a grocery

store or with children in a

department store.

Observations should be

used when consumers

cannot recall their

behaviors, such as knowing

how many different web

pages they accessed while

shopping online. Inability

to recall such behaviors is

known as faulty recall.

Observation research has

the advantage of seeing

what consumers actually

do instead of relying on

their self-report of what

they think they do.



One disadvantage of

observational research

is that few persons are

normally observed.

Researchers must be

concerned about the issue

of how accurately those

observed represent all

consumers in the target

population.



bank, purchasing a clothing item, or observing children as they watch a television program.

Some decision-making processes can take a long time (for example, buying a home), and it

would be unrealistic to observe the entire process. As a result, observational research is usually limited to scrutinizing activities that can be completed in a relatively short time or to

observing certain phases of those activities with a longer time span.

Public behavior refers to behavior that occurs in a setting the researcher can readily observe. Actions such as cooking, playing with one’s children at home, or private worship are

not public activities and are therefore are not usually suitable for observational studies such

as those described here.

Faulty recall occurs when actions or activities are so repetitive or automatic that the observed person cannot recall specifics about the behavior under question. For example, people

cannot recall accurately how many times they looked at their wristwatch while waiting in a

long line to buy a ticket to a best-selling movie or which brands of cookies they looked at

while grocery shopping. Observation is necessary under circumstances of faulty recall to fully

understand the behavior at hand. Faulty recall is one of the reasons that companies have experimented for many years with mechanical devices to observe these behaviors.14

aDvantages Of ObservatiOnaL Data

Observation of humans in their natural context is the approach that has been used by anthropologists for more than 100 years and is an accepted method of conducting marketing research.15 Typically, the subjects of observational research are unaware they are being

studied. Because of this, they react in a natural manner, giving the researcher insight into

actual, not reported, behaviors. As previously noted, observational research methods also

mean that there is no chance for recall error. The subjects are not asked what they remember

about a certain action. Instead, they are observed while engaged in the act. In some cases,

observation may be the only way to obtain accurate information. For instance, children

who cannot yet verbally express their opinion of a new toy will do so by simply playing or

not playing with the toy. Retail marketers commonly gather marketing intelligence about

competitors and about their own employees’ behaviors by hiring the services of mystery

shoppers who pose as customers but who are actually trained observers.16 Of course, mystery shopping should be conducted in an ethical manner, as described in the MRA code of

ethics excerpt in Marketing Research Insight 6.2. In some situations, data can be obtained

with better accuracy and less cost by using observational methods as opposed to other

means. For example, counts of in-store traffic can often be made by means of observational

techniques more accurately and less expensively than by using survey techniques. Also,

pluralistic researchers will use observation techniques to supplement and complement other

techniques.17

LiMitatiOns Of ObservatiOnaL Data

The limitations of observation reflect the limitations of qualitative research in general. With

direct observation, typically only small numbers of subjects are studied and usually under

special circumstances, so their representativeness is a concern.18 This factor, plus the subjective interpretation required to explain the observed behavior, usually forces the researcher

to consider his or her conclusions to be tentative. Certainly, the greatest drawback of all observational methods is the researcher’s inability to pry beneath the behavior observed and to

interrogate the person on motives, attitudes, and all of the other unseen aspects of why what

was observed took place.

To recap, a limitation of observation is that motivations, attitudes, intentions, and other

internal conditions cannot be observed. Only when these feelings are relatively unimportant or are readily inferred from the behavior is it appropriate to use observational research

methods. For example, facial expression might be used as an indicator of a child’s attitudes or



FoCus Groups



Marketing research insight 6.2



151



Ethical Consideration



Marketing Research Association Code of Ethics

Mystery Shopping

Mystery shopping is a long-established research technique used

by a wide variety of commercial, governmental, and other organizations. Its purpose is to help such groups to assess and

improve the standards of service they provide to their customers by comparing their achieved performance against their

own targets and against the standards provided by competitors and other organizations. The approach involves the use of

evaluators who are specially trained to observe and measure

the nature and quality of the services being offered to customers. These mystery shoppers pose as consumers and chronicle



detailed information about their mystery shopping experience

using questionnaires or narrative reports.

MRA considers mystery shopping a legitimate form of marketing research when it is employed for customer satisfaction

purposes—that is, to determine likely customer perceptions

and needs. It is not considered marketing research when it is

used for nonresearch purposes such as identifying individuals for disciplinary actions, falsely elevating sales by creating a

demand for products or services that does not really exist in

the current marketplace, or obtaining personal information for

nonresearch purposes.



preferences for various types of fruit drink flavors because children often react with conspicuous physical expressions. But adults and even children usually conceal their reasons and true

reactions in public, and this fact necessitates a direct questioning approach because observation alone cannot give a complete picture of why and how people act the way they do.



The major disadvantage

of observation research is

the inability to determine

consumers’ motives,

attitudes, and intentions.



Focus Groups

A popular qualitative research technique is focus groups, which are small groups of people

brought together and guided by a moderator through an unstructured, spontaneous discussion

for the purpose of gaining information relevant to the research problem.19 Although focus

groups should encourage openness on the part of the participants, the approach ensures that

discussion is “focused” on some general area of interest. For example, the Piccadilly Cafeteria

chain periodically conducted focus groups all around the country. The conversation may seem

“freewheeling,” but the purpose of the focus group may be to learn what people think about

some specific aspect of the cafeteria business, such as the perceived quality of cafeteria versus

traditional restaurant food.

Focus groups represent a useful technique for gathering information from a limited sample of respondents. The information can be used to generate ideas, to learn the respondents’

“vocabulary” when relating to a certain type of product, or to gain some insights into basic

needs and attitudes.20 Focus groups may represent 85% to 90% of the total money spent on

qualitative research.21 They have become so popular in marketing research that every large

city has a number of companies that specialize in performing focus group research. You will

most certainly encounter focus group research if you become a practicing marketing manager. “Almost nothing gets done without them,” says Bill Hillsman, a successful advertising

executive whose campaigns have promoted the Minnesota Twins, the Dales shopping centers,

and Arctic Cat® snowmobiles.22 Focus groups are an invaluable means of regaining contact

with customers when marketers have lost touch, and they are helpful in learning about new

customer groups.

hOW fOcus grOups WOrk

Focus groups are of two basic types. Traditional focus groups select about 6 to 12 persons

who interact in a dedicated room, with a one-way mirror for client viewing, for about two



Focus groups are small

groups of people brought

together and guided

through an unstructured,

spontaneous discussion

for the purpose of gaining

information relevant to the

research problem.

Information from focus

groups can be used

to generate ideas, to

learn the respondents’

“vocabulary” when

relating to a certain type of

product, or to gain some

insights into basic needs

and attitudes.



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Chapter 6 • Qualitative researCh teChniQues



Traditional focus group

facilities have a oneway mirror or cameras,

which allow clients in an

adjoining room to watch

the focus group without

influencing what its

members say and do.

Focus group participants’

comments are encouraged

and guided by

moderators.



YouTube

Logo:

Learn

about

Focus

Groups with YouTube by

going to www.youtube.com

and search for “Focus Group

Research: Premium Salad

Dressing Packaging.”



hours. In recent years, contemporary focus groups23 have emerged that differ in that they are

online and the client can observe the online activity from any remote location.

Focus group participants are guided by moderators. The training and background of

the moderator is extremely important for the success of the focus group. 24 Focus group

moderators are responsible for creating an atmosphere that is conducive to openness, yet

they must make certain the participants do not stray too far from the central focus of the

study. Good moderators have excellent observation, interpersonal, and communication

skills to recognize and overcome threats to a productive group discussion. They are prepared, experienced, and armed with a detailed list of topics to be discussed.25 It is also

helpful if focus group moderators can eliminate any preconceptions on discussion topics

from their minds. The best moderators are experienced, enthusiastic, prepared, involved,

energetic, and open minded.26 With an incompetent moderator, the focus group can become a disaster.

Focus group company principals are sometimes referred to as qualitative research consultants (QRCs). The QRC prepares a focus group report that summarizes the information

provided by the focus group participants relative to the research questions. Two factors are

crucial when analyzing the data. First, some sense must be made by translating the statements

of participants into categories or themes and then reporting the degree of consensus apparent

in the focus groups.27 Second, the demographic and buyer behavior characteristics of focus

group participants should be judged against the target market profile to assess to what degree

the groups represent the target market.

The focus group report reflects the qualitative aspect of this research method. It lists all

themes that have become apparent, and it notes any diversity of opinions or thoughts expressed

by the participants. It will also have numerous verbatim excerpts provided as evidence. 28 In

fact, some reports include complete transcripts or video recordings of the focus group discussion. This information is then used as the basis for further research studies or even for more

focus groups. If the information is used for subsequent focus groups, the client uses the first

group as a learning experience, making any adjustments to the discussion topics as needed to

improve the research objectives. Although focus groups may be the only type of research used

to tackle a marketing problem or question, they are also used as a beginning point for quantitative research efforts; that is, a focus group phase may be used to gain a feel for a specific survey

that will ultimately generate standardized information from a representative sample.



Active Learning

Learn More About Qualitative Research

Go to the Qualitative Research Consultants Association website (www.qrca.com). Click on

“About Research,” then “What Is Qualitative Research,” to access the “When to Use Qualitative Research” page. Now let’s consider the example of recommendations made by a university’s faculty senate to the administration. For each of these recommendations, indicate

whether qualitative research should be used to evaluate students’ opinions. What are the

pros and cons of using this form of research in each case?

1. Require all students to park at a central parking lot two miles from campus and take

shuttle buses to campus.

2. Increase tuition by 10%.

3. Schedule classes on Monday/Wednesday or Tuesday/Thursday, leaving Friday for student organization meetings and group project work.

4. Require students to take at least 18 hours of course work during summer school.

5. Require every student to purchase and bring an iPad to class.



FoCus Groups



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OnLine fOcus grOups

The online focus group is a form of contemporary focus

group in which respondents communicate via an Internet

forum, which clients can observe. Typically, online focus

groups allow the participants the convenience of being

seated at their own computers, while the moderator operates

out of his or her office. The online focus group is “virtual”

in that it communicates electronically and does not have

face-to-face contact. For example, FocusVision Worldwide® (www.focusvision.com) has an online focus group

system using webcams and voice communication that connect the moderator and focus group members in real time

while clients can observe and send chat messages to the

moderator during the discussion if they wish. Online focus

Online focus group participants are relaxed, but they can become

groups have the following advantages over traditional focus

bored or distracted.

groups: (1) no physical setup is necessary, (2) transcripts

are captured on file in real time, (3) participants can be in Photo: AZP Worldwide/Shutterstock

widely separated geographic locations, (4) participants are

comfortable in their home or office environments, and (5) the moderator can exchange private Respondents to an online

messages with individual participants. Innovative approaches are possible, as some researchers focus group communicate

combine online with telephone communications for maximum effectiveness.29 Nonetheless, via the Internet, and clients

may observe the virtual

there are some disadvantages to online focus groups: (1) observation of participants’ body lan- chat.

guage is not possible, (2) participants cannot physically inspect products or taste food items, and

(3) participants can lose interest or become distracted.30

A variation of the online focus group is conducted in a traditional setting, but the client watches online. With the use of streaming media and high-speed Internet connections,

ActiveGroup has pioneered this research technique. For example, ActiveGroup (www

.activegroup.net) offers clients the ability to view focus groups online using streaming video.

The focus group is conducted at a traditional focus group facility with the participants seated

with the moderator. This type of online focus group allows several members of the client firm

to observe the focus group at their own location. This saves the client firm travel expense and

time. ActiveGroup operates in more than 1,000 focus group locations in 45 countries.

Since their entry into the research industry a few years ago, online focus groups have

grown in popularity. While they will not replace traditional focus groups, they offer a viable

research method.31 A recent article compared traditional in-person focus groups, videoconferencing focus groups, online focus groups, and “telepresence” focus groups using large highdefinition screens to create a focus group appearance and experience when participants are in

diverse remote locations. Table 6.1 reveals how these four types compare on various factors.

aDvantages Of fOcus grOups

The four major advantages of focus groups are that (1) they generate fresh ideas; (2) they

allow clients to observe their participants; (3) they may be directed at understanding a wide

variety of issues, such as reactions to a new food product, brand logo, or television ad; and

(4) they allow fairly easy access to special respondent groups, such as lawyers or doctors

(whereas it may be very difficult to find a representative sample of these groups).

DisaDvantages Of fOcus grOups

There are three major disadvantages to focus groups: (1) They do not constitute representative

samples; therefore, caution must be exercised in generalizing findings; (2) success is greatly

dependent on the ability of the moderator; and (3) it is sometimes difficult to interpret the

results of focus groups (the moderator’s report is based on a subjective evaluation of participants’ statements and interactions).



Focus groups generate

fresh ideas, allow clients

to observe them, are

applicable to a wide

variety of issues, and allow

researchers to obtain

information from “hard-toreach” subpopulations.

Focus groups are not

representative, and it is

sometimes difficult to

interpret the research

results.