Chapter 1. Concepts and Theories of Asset Protection

4



1. CONCEPTS AND THEORIES OF ASSET PROTECTION



ASSET VALUATION

The asset must have some type of value. The

value of the asset could be a real value, such as

a gold bar being worth a set amount of money

based on the weight of the bar and the current price of gold. The value of the asset could

be based on what it would cost the company to

replace it. This is sometimes difficult to calculate

when discussing specialty items such as the formula or recipe for a soft drink, or the patented

design for a product, the loss of which could

mean the end of a company. The most intangible valuation of an asset would be in what is

referred to as “reputational damage”—the loss of

the image of a company or consumer confidence

in a company. Reputational damage can occur

through major theft of customer information, a

senior executive being injured or killed, or the

brand name of a company being tainted through

inferior “knock-off” products. The loss of reputation is difficult to calculate because things such

as unrealized sales are nearly impossible to

determine. While it is not necessary to have the

actual value of an asset on hand at any one time,

the value of the asset must be known prior to the

implementation of any protection program and

reevaluated periodically thereafter.



RISKS

Criticality

Once the asset and its value are defined, it is

necessary to determine what risks there are to

the asset. According to the ASIS International

General Security Risk Assessment Guideline,

“risks or threats are those incidents likely to occur

at a site, either due to a history of such events or

circumstances in the local environment” (2003,

p. 6). It is therefore important to have data on

crime and incidents occurring in and around the

site. A vulnerability assessment will include a

thorough examination of the facility, personnel,



contents, materials, suppliers, and contractors,

especially anything that by use or omission

would damage, harm, or cause loss to the company or its personnel.



Frequency

The frequency of losses must then be determined through an examination of the types of

crimes and incidents in and around the facility,

with special emphasis on the dates on which

they occurred. A ranking of the events should be

made using a consistent scale (annually, monthly,

daily, or hourly) for all such loss events.



Probability

Through an analysis of this information, trends

may emerge which point to an escalation in activities that may precede a more serious crime against

the company. This will help to establish the probability of such an event occurring in the future,

assuming all other processes and operations at the

facility remain the same. Once there is a change in

the assets, the probability of loss will also change.



Impact

Finally, a ranking of the impact of any loss

on the company must be made. Impact is an

accounting of the tangible (real) and intangible

(unrealized) costs associated with such events. All

such tangible losses should be considered, from

the mundane, such as the loss of power or water

service, up to and including the loss of the facility

including its contents and a substantial portion of

the employees. Intangible losses such as the loss

of current or future sales or customers should also

be accounted for, to the extent that this is possible.



MITIGATION

Only after all of the factors of risk or loss have

been compiled and examined can the protection

officer assist with developing strategies to help



I. FOUNDATIONS



ASSET PROTECTION



mitigate the risk. All of the mitigation efforts

must be designed so as not to “substantially

interfere with the operation of profitability of the

enterprise” (ASIS, 2003, p. 6). Mitigation efforts

that do substantially impact operations are much

less likely to see executive support regardless of

the level of risk, as they also substantially impact

the profitability of the company.



Cost/Benefit

A cost/benefit analysis must also be conducted to help assist in evaluating the mitigation

measures against the costs incurred. According

to the ASIS International General Security Risk

Assessment Guideline, the cost benefit process

“involves three steps:

●



●



●



Identification of all direct and indirect

consequences of the expenditure.

Assignment of a monetary value to all costs

and benefits resulting from the expenditure.

Discounting expected future costs and

revenues accruing from the expenditure to

express those costs and revenues in current

monetary values” (ASIS, p. 4).



If the cost/benefit evaluation determines that

the cost of mitigating the risk is greater than the

cost of the asset, then other measures must be

employed.



ASSET PROTECTION

Layered Protection

Asset protection through risk mitigation

typically involves a concept of layered protection, also known as defense in depth. In this

concept, the asset is considered to be in the

center, surrounded by concentric layers of protection. Each layer contributes individually,

and as part of the whole, to the overall protection of the asset. The principles behind layered

protection consist of deterrence, detection, delay,



5



and defense/response. Each piece of the layered

protection concept can work on its own. However,

the most complete protection is afforded through

combining all of the layers.

Deterrence is the practice of discouraging

an individual or group from even attempting

to attack the asset. This can be accomplished

through a number of means such as signage,

fencing, lighting, cameras, or people. Signage

at the perimeter of the enterprise property

would warn trespassers of the property line

and the penalty for proceeding further. Further

enhancements to the signage could include the

addition of fencing, lights, and cameras. In a

personal protection role, the deterrence would

appear to be provided by the ring of protection

officers, or specialists around a high-profile

individual. In some rare circumstances, the illusion of additional layers of protection can be a

better and more cost-effective deterrent.

Detection is the identification of a threat,

preferably at the earliest possible opportunity.

Alarm sensors, cameras, and even protection

officers, are all means of detecting and identifying threats to the enterprise. A threat identified earlier in the asset protection process gives

the remaining layers of protection more time to

contribute to the overall protection of the asset.

Delaying the attacker also gives the other

layers of defense a chance to work together.

Sufficient layers of delay must be incorporated

so that the detection and defense/response

pieces of the asset protection continuum can

perform their roles. Delay can be accomplished

through an expansive perimeter that takes

a while for the attacker to cross, fences that

take time to climb, strong doors that must be

breached, and interior levels of protection such

as additional doors into rooms or a safe that

takes even more time to enter.

A sufficiently delayed attacker allows for a

defense to be mounted from within the site to

repel the attacker, or for a sufficient response to

be put together and proceed to the site. However,

the layers of protection must delay the attacker



I. FOUNDATIONS



6



1. CONCEPTS AND THEORIES OF ASSET PROTECTION



long enough so as to be able to stop him on the

way to the asset, or on his way out with the asset,

but before he leaves the property with the asset.



PHYSICAL SECURITY

Physical security planning was originally

based upon response to a military threat. A traditional reference for physical security is FM

19-30 Physical Security, published by the U.S.

Army, while a modern reference is the Facilities

Physical Security Measures Guideline published

by ASIS International.

The process used to plan physical security

measures is as follows:

1. Identify assets. These generally include

personnel, property, information, and image.

2. Loss events are exposed. Risks are identified.

This involves research rather than “seat of the

pants” reasoning!

3. Probability of the loss events occurring is

calculated.

4. Impact of occurrence is assessed for each loss

event. This means, the effect the loss event

will have in terms of direct, indirect, and extraexpense costs.

5. Countermeasures are selected. There can

be a vast array of interventions; generally

physical security utilizes target hardening

techniques, such as patrols, access control,

lighting, intrusion detection, surveillance,

weapons detection, and so on.

6. Countermeasures are implemented.

7. Countermeasures are evaluated as to their

effectiveness. Traditionally, this step has been

avoided by practitioners in physical security

and crime prevention.

Note: See www.securitysolutions.com and

www.securitymagazine.com for products and

applications.

Patrols are a key part of a physical security

system. They serve as catalysts for the system,

bringing all parts together. Patrols have been



traditionally used by military forces to scout out

the location and disposition of an opponent. They

are used today by police and security forces.

While still endeavoring to locate hostile individuals (felons), modern police patrols are used

to assess community environments. In a contemporary asset protection scheme, patrols are

not only concerned with criminal acts but also

with unauthorized activities, safety and fire protection issues, and the performance of auxiliary

services. These can include delivering the company mail, checking gauges, conducting lighting surveys, assessing behavior, enforcing lease

agreements, and assisting customers. Note that

community policing or problem-oriented policing

strategies that public police have adopted are

very similar to what security practitioners have

been doing for decades.



CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH

ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN

Crime Prevention Through Environmental

Design (CPTED) is a system whereby territoriality reinforcement is established via barriers, access control, and surveillance. Its genesis

may have been in the construction of castles

and forts. The contemporary beginnings of it

were through the writings of Oscar Newman

(Defensible Space) and C. Ray Jeffrey (Crime

Prevention through Environmental Design). CPTED

theory consists of these various components:

Territoriality: Boundaries and property

lines are marked. This can be the placement

of barriers, shrubbery, and the use of

different colors of walkways to mark areas.

Psychological deterrents to trespass are

erected to establish territoriality.

Surveillance: Observing areas makes detection

and deterrence of criminal behavior more

likely. There are several types of deterrence:

Natural—keeping areas open to

observation, such as by clearing bushes

near access points, having windows facing



I. FOUNDATIONS



RISK MANAGEMENT AND INSURANCE



out into a common courtyard, or placing

a picnic area near a basketball court. All of

these make for easier observation of the area

to be protected. They facilitate detection of

criminal or unauthorized activity.

Electronic—technological aids are used,

such as closed circuit television (CCTV)

and volumetric intrusion detection systems,

such as passive infrared (PIR) sensors.

Organized—patrols by security personnel,

police, or citizen crime watches.

Access control: Maintaining boundaries

by restricting access to an area. Access is

controlled via the use of locks, biometric

systems, access cards, and other methods.

Access control is a physical deterrent to trespass.

Positive activity support: In a significant

departure from physical security, CPTED

uses activities that divert people in the

environment from involvement in crime.

This may take the form of recreation,

entertainment, or volunteer efforts that help

society (volunteer fire companies for youth).

Maintenance: The repair of “broken

windows.” An environment that is not

kept up properly may degenerate further.

People see broken windows and believe it is

acceptable to break other windows.

A “snowballing” or “rolling ball” effect

occurs. Prompt repair and cleaning of damage

or graffiti are essential parts of CPTED.



SAFETY

Safety ushers in the more contemporary

emphasis on asset protection and incorporates

the WAECUP Theory of Loss Control developed

by Bottom and Kostanoski in Security and Loss

Control (first published by Macmillan in 1983).

W — Waste of time, resources, man-hours,

space;

A — Accident that causes injury, downtime,

increased workers’ compensation costs, and

so on;



7



E — Error in planning or execution, which

results in lost funds;

C — Crime that causes loss and/or injury;

UP — Unethical/unprofessional practices,

such as misrepresentation, discrimination,

conflict of interest, and so on.

Accidents cost extensive amounts of direct loss

(cost of replacement and repair) as well as indirect loss (downtime, investigative costs, lowered

morale, legal fees, etc.) and extra-expense loss

(advertising, rental of new rooms or equipment).

Note that there are also extensive administrative

law requirements under OSHA (Occupational

Safety and Health Administration) and state

agencies

(CALOSHA

and

Pennsylvania

Department of Labor and Industry) with which

organizations must comply. Safety is a major

concern to organizations for all of these reasons.

Many persons in charge of security are also in

charge of safety. A Director of Safety and Security

has become a common title in health care, on college campuses, and in hotel environments.



RISK MANAGEMENT AND

INSURANCE

“Risk management” is a term closely associated with the insurance industry. It is similar conceptually to the physical security planning process

in its implementation, but it deals with risks other

than “security” threats caused by humans. It is

not limited to “target hardening” (risk reduction)

approaches, such as the use of locks, barriers,

intrusion alarms, and so on. Strategies for managing risk include the following:

Risk avoidance—such as completely avoiding

the risk of an earthquake by avoiding

geographic areas where there are active fault

lines, staying out of countries that are known

to kidnap people for ransom, or not making

dangerous products, such as explosives.

Risk transfer—means transferring

the financial impact of loss to another



I. FOUNDATIONS



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1. CONCEPTS AND THEORIES OF ASSET PROTECTION



organization or entity. Insurance coverage is

the usual means of risk transfer. The insurance

company takes on the cost of repairing or

replacing the asset at risk instead of the

enterprise. Of course, this comes at some

cost and some delay in repairing or replacing

an asset as the insurance company must

investigate and process the claim. Outsourcing

hazardous operations to other organizations is

another example of risk transfer.

Risk assumption, risk retention, or risk

acceptance—refers to accepting the risk, as it

has a very low probability of occurring; the

risk is extremely difficult to protect against;

or the cost of changing the risk to the assets is

so great or so low that any effort to change it

would either be too expensive or the losses so

low as to be inconsequential. For instance, it is

extremely unlikely that an asteroid will strike;

it is also impractical to defend against it. It

would likewise be impractical to purchase

insurance for a machine that has exceeded its

useful shelf life and has no intrinsic value.

Risk spreading—implies using redundant

systems of communication, power, or

information storage. The separation of



assets across some distance so that no one

vulnerability can affect the entire enterprise

is another example.

Risk reduction or risk mitigation—means

reducing the probability of a loss-causing

event through the adoption of preventive

measures. That is, taking methodical,

appropriate steps to lessen the risk to the

organization or the frequency, probability,

and impact of such risks and losses. Physical

security and crime deterrence would be

considered risk reduction. So, too, would the

use of safety equipment.

As you can see, risks can be reduced in a number of ways, but they are never truly eliminated.

Insurance can be thought of as the “last line

of defense” in a physical security system. It

provides the policyholder with financial compensation from the insurance company after a

loss has occurred. According to Purpura (1991),

loss prevention originated within the insurance

industry. Note that while the term “loss prevention” is utilized primarily within the retail sector, it is gradually being replaced with the more

representative term “asset protection.”



PRACTICAL EXERCISE

Pick some assets, such as vital information,

that an organization needs to operate: people, works, art, and so on. Place these assets in

the boxes to the left. Next, place the primary

threats that may face those assets such as fire,

Asset



terrorism, theft, and so on. In the column on the

right, list a risk management approach, such

as transfer, avoidance, or acceptance, which

would be most appropriate for dealing with the

threat.



Threat



Risk strategy



I. FOUNDATIONS



RISK MANAGEMENT AND INSURANCE



Insurance policies provided by an insurance

company are driven by the probability of loss

events occurring based on actuarial tables. The

premiums and deductibles are adjusted according to the loss event probability; so, too, is the

availability of insurance if insurance carriers

deem a risk to be too high and refuse to write

a policy. In these cases, organizations must selfinsure or join an insurance pool of other organizations that pool their funds in a liquid account

that is set aside in the event of a loss. There are

also government insurance programs for crime

and floods on the federal level, and workers’

compensation on the state level.

Various types of insurance coverage have

evolved, such as the following:

Business Interruption—for losses incurred

after a disaster, accident, or fire while a

business is not operating. Business interruption

insurance helps to control indirect losses

stemming from lost productivity.

Kidnap and Ransom (K & R)—for firms that

have had executives abducted by criminals

or terrorists. This coverage became popular

in the early 1980s in response to left-wing

terrorist kidnappings in Latin America. The

film Proof of Life with Russell Crowe portrays

K & R coverage.

Worker ’s Compensation—required by state

laws to compensate workers injured on the

job from the results of work-related accidents

and occupational diseases (Purpura, 1991,

p. 265). Rates paid for premiums by employers

are based on job hazard, and in part on an

employer’s record of accidents.



Liability insurance—to cover legal costs

and compensatory damage awards (punitive

damages are not generally covered).

Attorney’s fees and associated costs can

become quite high during civil litigation

regardless of whether the case is settled or

goes before a court.

Fire insurance—one of the first types of

insurance developed; some policies mandate

that the insured conduct periodic patrols

of various areas on the property—the use

of watch tour systems had developed as a

result of this.

Burglary insurance—for losses associated

with unlawful intrusion. Burglary insurance

policies generally require evidence of forced

entry.

Robbery insurance—coverage for forcible

thefts committed in the presence of another.

Theft insurance—policies cover losses from

theft; may include burglary and robbery losses.

Bonds—fidelity bonds require investigation

of the covered employee by the bonding

company (the insurer); these bonds indemnify

the holder against dishonest acts committed

by the employee. The holder of the bonds is

exempt from financial responsibility for the

dishonest acts of the employee.

Employment Practices Liability (EPL)—

insures against legal costs due to unlawful

employment practices such as sexual

harassment, discrimination, and so on.

Contemporary liability exposure for ongoing

illegal employment practices is substantial,

with awards and settlements running into

the multimillions.



EMERGING TRENDS

An emerging new paradigm of asset protection is the consideration that must be made for

an attacker who will enter a protected area with

the goal of destroying an asset in place. The



9



homicide/suicide bomber is an especially troubling trend and is difficult to provide sufficient

levels of protection against. The amount of time to

detect, delay, and defend is essentially reduced by



I. FOUNDATIONS



10



1. CONCEPTS AND THEORIES OF ASSET PROTECTION



half as the attacker does not have to add in time

to flee. Depending on the asset to be protected

and the preexisting environment in which the

protection officer must operate, strengthening the

ability to detect and delay the adversary must be

given especially careful consideration. This may

include the addition of intelligence assets that can

overtly or covertly uncover the adversary’s plans.

Cooperative information sharing with other entities such as law enforcement or in some areas, the

military, may be the best option for strengthening

the detection aspect of asset protection.

Like the homicide/suicide bomber, improvised

explosive devices (IEDs) are also an especially troubling trend. Not limited to areas of conflict, domestic extremist organizations have used these devices

to intimidate, maim, and destroy. Special attention

and alternative plans must be carefully developed

for organizations that conduct work that may

attract the attention of such groups, including specialized protection plans for executives. In areas of

conflict where the threat of IEDs is real, options for

reducing the risk include, but are not limited to,

traveling covertly, using decoy vehicles, or using

telephones, videos, and Internet conferencing.



SUMMARY

Being involved in the practice of asset protection is the first step toward advancement in

your field and acceptance in your enterprise.

The protection officer must be ready to volunteer and assist in learning this craft.



References

General Security Risk Assessment Guideline. (2003).

Alexandria, VA: ASIS International.

Biery, K. D., Jr., & Schaub, J. L. (1994). The ultimate security

survey. Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Broder, J. F. (1984). Risk analysis and the security survey.

Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.



Specialization in the industry is the continuation of a long-standing trend that is gaining

greater acceptance outside of the business. Both

large and small security businesses are finding

specialties in which to focus and thrive. Some

security officer companies are established as, or

are establishing, separate divisions devoted to

retail security in malls and protection of chemical

plants or nuclear power stations. Electronic security companies may find specialization in surveillance systems for casinos or integrating various

security, fire alarm, and building control systems into a cohesive platform using the client’s

computer network.

Professionalism is also the continuation of a

long-standing trend that is finding favor by the

companies and clients that security professionals work for and with. College degrees at the

Bachelor’s and Master’s levels are an almost universal requirement for security managers at all

levels, and for some security officers in specialized sectors. Certification by industry organizations such as the International Foundation for

Protection Officers and ASIS International is also

becoming a requisite for some companies.



Calder, J. D. (1985). Industrial guards in the nineteenth and

twentieth centuries: The mean years. Journal of Security

Administration, 8(2).

Coleman, J. W. (1969). The Molly Maguire riots: Industrial conflict in the Pennsylvania coal region. New York, NY: Arno &

The New York Times.

Constable, G. (Ed.). (1990). The old west. New York, NY:

Time-Life Books.

Cote, A., & Bugbee, P. (1988). Principles of fire protection. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection

Association.

Fennelly, L. J. (1989). Handbook of loss prevention and crime

prevention (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Butterworths.

Fennelly, L. J. (1996). Handbook of loss prevention and crime

prevention (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Fiems, R., & Hertig, C. (2001). Protection officer guidebook.

Naples, FL: International Foundation for Protection

Officers.



I. FOUNDATIONS



11



SECURITY QUIZ



Fossum, J. (1982). Labor relations: Development, structure, process. Dallas, TX: Business Publications, Inc.

Garcia, M. L. (2001). The design and evaluation of physical protection systems. Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Girard, C. M. (1989). Planning, management and evaluation, Chapter 31. In L. J. Fennelly (Ed.), Handbook of loss

prevention and crime prevention (2nd ed.). Boston, MA:

Butterworths.

Gilbride, B. P. (1999). Sexual harassment. In S. J. Davies &

R. R. Minion (Eds.), Security supervision: Theory and

practice of asset protection. Woburn, MA: ButterworthHeinemann.

Green, G., revised by Fischer, R. J. (1987). Introduction to

security (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Butterworths.

Hertig, C. A. (2002). Investigative concepts. Unpublished

paper. York College of Pennsylvania.

Hertig, C. A., Fennelly, L. J., & Tyska, L. A. (1998). Civil

liability for security personnel. Naples, FL: International

Foundation for Protection Officers.



S EC U RI T Y QU IZ

1. The ASIS International General Security Risk

Assessment Guideline defines an asset as

“Any real or personal property, tangible or

intangible, that a company or individual owns,

that can be given or assigned a monetary value.

a. True

b. False

2. CPTED stands for Crime Prevention through

Environmental Dedication.

a. True

b. False

3. Physical security planning was originally

based upon response to a military threat.

a. True

b. False

4. Risk Management is a term closely associated

with the insurance industry.

a. True

b. False

5. A vulnerability assessment will include a

thorough examination of the following:

a. Facility and personnel

b. Contents and material

c. Suppliers and contractors

d. All the above



Johnson, T. (2002). Retail loss prevention management models

Unpublished paper. York College of Pennsylvania.

Kuykendall, J. (1986). The municipal police detective: An

historical analysis. Criminology, 24(1).

Mackay, J. (1996). Allan Pinkerton: The first private eye.

New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Matthews, L. J. (1990). Pioneers and trailblazers: Adventures of

the old west. New York, NY: Derrydale.

Nalla, M., & Newman, G. (1990). A primer in private security.

Albany, NY: Harrow & Heston.

National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice

Standards and Goals. (1976). Report of the task force on

private security. Washington, DC.

Peak, K. J. (1997). Policing in America: Methods, issues, challenges. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Purpura, P. P. (1991). Security and loss prevention: An introduction. Stoneham, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Sennewald, C. A. (1985). Effective security management (2nd

ed.). Boston, MA: Butterworths.



6. Deterrence is the practice of discouraging an

individual or group from even attempting to

attack the asset.

a. True

b. False

7. All risks can be reduced completely.

a. True

b. False

8. There is a theory of loss control developed by

Bottom and Kostanoski in security and loss

control. It is known as:

a. WASTE

b. WASTMGMT

c. WAECUP

d. WHATSUP

9. The most intangible valuation of an asset

would be in what is referred to as:

a. Liquid asset

b. Respectful damage

c. Punitive damage

d. Reputational damage

10. Intangible property include things such

as goodwill, proprietary information, and

related property.

a. True

b. False



I. FOUNDATIONS



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C H A P T E R



2

The Evolution of Asset Protection

and Security

Christopher A. Hertig and John Christman

INTRODUCTION



CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

●



●

●



●



●



●



●



●



●



Discuss the importance of looking at the

cycle of history

List and define key terms

Explore the growth of the security

industry through wartime and policing

units

Compare and contrast private security

and public police

Explain how the fire protection industry

developed

Look at how commerce and economic

and marketing trends are related to asset

protection

Explore how demographics, historical

class struggles, and labor relations

have all contributed to the protection

profession

Provide avenues toward the PATH to

Professionalism



History is illustrative for many reasons; there

are trends and themes that run throughout the

march of time and that repeat themselves—to a

degree. P. T. Barnum said, “All history is bunk,”

and he was right—to a degree. History is a perspective. In many cases, that perspective gets

distorted, or lost, over time.

Studying history is important as it gives us

perspective on where things were, where they

are now, and where they may be in the future.

Historical analysis can provide insight into how

certain issues were dealt with. This may give

guidance in contemporary or future problem

solving.

Finally, history provides a laboratory for the

testing of theory. Solutions that were developed

in response to certain problems had positive

or negative effects in addressing those problems. An example is the Prohibition Era in the

United States, beginning in 1919. Alcoholic beverage manufacture or distribution was against

the law. As a result, huge criminal enterprises

sprang up in response to consumer demand. A

black market economy was formed with gangsters seeking to profit. Some people feel that the



Offer suggestions for pursuing

contemporary careers in asset protection



13



14



2. THE EVOLUTION OF ASSET PROTECTION AND SECURITY



current legal prohibition against drugs is analogous to Prohibition. This is an arguable point:

drugs are not as socially accepted as the drinking of alcohol was in 1920s American society.

Nonetheless, the emergence of black markets

due to extensive consumer demand for illegal

goods or services is something that all students

of asset protection should appreciate.



4.



THE CYCLE OF HISTORY

The security industry has a rich and varied

background. “Security” implies protection: safety

from attack, espionage, or sabotage. It means

being able to live, work, or play free from harm,

in a stable environment. Organizations must take

measures to minimize disruption. These measures are dependent on a variety of factors, such

as threat probability, criticality, culture of the

organization, financial resources available, and so

on. The measures taken have changed over time.

The historical development of “asset protection” (the broader, more contemporary term

encompassing safety and fire protection) and

“security” (the older term; more oriented to

crime/espionage/terrorism issues) reveals several trends. These trends appear to be cyclical

in nature.

1. Private initiatives generally precede public.

In many cases, private protective measures

are started to fill a void in services offered

by governments. Private corporations are

more nimble and flexible than governments.

This enables them to start new programs,

protection or control forces, etc.

2. Control forces may be involved in class

struggles. Control forces—military, police,

security—work to keep certain groups of

citizens in line.

3. There is a strong relationship between

commerce and protective needs. The amount

and type of commerce (ships, trains, Internet,

and so on) determines the threats or risks

posed to the commerce system. Each risk



5.



6.



7.



demands different protective strategies and

tactics. These change with technological

developments. Politics and economics are

also factors. In 2008 and 2009, piracy on

the high seas became a major issue due to

large numbers of unemployed mariners.

Demographics—population size, density,

age distribution—plays a key role in crime

control and safety. Large numbers of

recent immigrants who do not understand

the language or customs of their newly

adopted country create safety and security

challenges. College students living in

dormitories create another set of challenges.

High-rise office buildings with business

tenants have different protection needs from

two-story apartment complexes for lowincome families. Security measures must be

relevant to the environment in which they

are implemented and every environment is

different.

Military forces and concepts are intimately

involved in protection. Foreign invaders,

riots that have to be contained by soldiers,

and international terrorists are all addressed

by military forces. Contemporary protective forces often operate on a military

organizational structure. Police, security,

and firefighting organizations have a

paramilitary chain-of-command with

sergeants, lieutenants, and captains. The

military has clearly exerted an influence over

police, security, and fire departments.

Security efforts generally are a step behind the

latest methods of criminal attack. The saying

“As one hole in the net is mended, the fish swim

toward another” seems particularly relevant.

Protective efforts are usually initiated

after serious problems have occurred. The

September 11, 2001, attacks on the Pentagon

and World Trade Center initiated substantial

reforms in the federal government, such as

the Transportation Security Administration.

Wars and major natural disasters also create

new protective organizations, laws, and so on.



I. FOUNDATIONS