Chapter 8. Central Alarm Stations and Dispatch Operations

90



8. CENTRAL ALARM STATIONS AND DISPATCH OPERATIONS



very quick thinking—dispatch and monitoring

staff are prepared to coordinate an immediate

response to all of the above and more.



HISTORY OF CENTRAL ALARM

AND DISPATCH CENTERS

In the past, humans acted as both alarm

sensors and transmission media. In order

for a response to occur, an emergency situation had to be directly observed by a citizen,

who then rushed to police or fire headquarters to notify the authorities in person

(National Communications Institute [NCI],

2001). However, this process began to change

when William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone

invented the electrical telegraph in 1837

(Stewart, 1994). The telegraph was tailored

to the public safety industry in 1852, when

William Channing invented the fire alarm telegraph (Fischer, 2008a), which allowed a citizen

to activate a pull box, sending a signal with the

location of that box to the local fire company.

In 1853, Augustus Russell Pope developed

and patented the first modern burglar alarm in

Somerville, Massachusetts. It involved an open

electrical circuit that connected the doors and

windows in a building; when a protected door

or window was opened, the circuit would close

and activate an audible alarm. Pope only completed one installation, however. The patent

was sold in 1858 to Edwin Holmes, who greatly

expanded the business (Fischer, 2008a).

Holmes installed his first burglar alarm system in Boston in 1858 (Ellis, 2007). However,

within 1 year, he chose to relocate to New York

City, because at the time, it was perceived to be

where “all the country’s burglars made their

home” (Fischer, 2008b). By 1866, Holmes’s client base had grown to over 1200 residential customers. Around this time, he began marketing

to business entities as well as private residences,

with great success. The year 1868 brought several technological advances to Holmes’s burglar



alarm systems, such as an attached clock that

could activate and deactivate the system at certain intervals, as well as a latching circuit that

required authorized personnel to manually

reset the system prior to deactivating the audible alarm (Fischer, 2008b).

Around the year 1877, Holmes installed the

first network of burglar alarm systems connected to a central station (Ellis, 2007). He sent

his son to Boston to establish a second central

station there. While in Boston, Holmes Jr. discovered that alarm signals could be transmitted to a central station via preexisting telephone

wires, and vice versa. He set up a network of

700 telephones connected to the Boston central

office, and promptly informed Holmes Sr., who

set up a similar operation in New York City. In

1878, Holmes Sr. expanded his telephone interests by becoming president of the newly formed

Bell Telephone Company. He sold his interest

in the company 2 years later but retained the

exclusive right to utilize Bell telephone wires

for his alarm circuits (Fischer, 2008c).

In 1871, Holmes was introduced to direct

competition when Edward Callahan formed the

American District Telegraph company, which

eventually became ADT. They utilized manual

action call boxes connected to a central monitoring station (Ellis, 2007). When the station

received an alarm, messenger boys were dispatched to the source and would immediately

report their findings to local police or fire officials via preexisting call boxes. By 1875, ADT

had expanded from New York City to Brooklyn,

Baltimore, Philadelphia, and Chicago (Fischer,

2008d). At this time, the company offered

police, fire, and all-purpose messenger boy services; however, within a few years, they began

to offer a contract security patrol service known

as the “Night Watch.” Even so, messenger boy

services initially accounted for over 70% of the

company’s revenue. However, use of this service declined rapidly with the development

and proliferation of the telephone. In 1901,

R. C. Clowery, then owner of ADT, decided the



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TYPES OF MONITORING SYSTEMS



wisest course of action was to focus almost

exclusively on police, fire, and security services

(Fischer, 2008d).

In 1877, the city of Albany, New York, purchased the world’s first police telephones

and installed them in the mayor’s office and

five city districts (Stewart, 1994). In 1883, the

Gamewell Company created a call box that

could be used by the police or the public. These

call box systems were installed in Washington,

DC, Chicago, Detroit, and Boston within the

next several years. In the United Kingdom, gas

lights were installed on top of police call boxes,

which could be lit by police headquarters in

order to notify the officer on foot patrol to contact the nearest station (Stewart, 1994).

Radio communication for police would

come many years later. The first police radios

in America were utilized by officers in Detroit,

Michigan, in 1928. These were only capable of

transmitting from the base station to a mobile

radio. Bayonne, New Jersey, became the first

police department to utilize two-way radios

in 1933 (Institute of Electrical and Electronics

Engineers, 2009). At that time, and for many

years, a dispatch center was a relatively simple operation. A typical center would consist

of a telephone system, a radio system, and a

record-keeping interface. The telephone system was basic, unlikely to incorporate features

that were not found in residential or office telephones, other than a manual switchboard used

to redirect calls. The radio system was a simple

desk microphone with a “push to talk” switch.

Records were kept by hand on a series of paper

forms (NCI, 2001). Such an operation may be

staffed by a switchboard operator, or by a police

or protection officer assigned to the desk.

Currently, the core functions of a dispatch

center remain the same: telephone communication, radio communication, and recordkeeping.

However, the technology has changed drastically over the years. Consumer-grade telephones

have been replaced with multi-line telephone

terminals accompanied by features such as



91



touch screens, enhanced caller ID, voice recording, and telecommunication devices for the deaf.

Two-way radios have evolved into networks

including many advanced features, such as:

●

●

●

●



touch screen interface

voice recording

remote paging

remote activation and deactivation of

handheld units



Pencil-and-paper record-keeping systems

have been replaced by computer-aided dispatch software, making it much easier to enter

new data and retrieve archived information.

These systems can be integrated with a variety

of other programs, including report management software, telephone or radio interfaces,

geographic mapping and tracking systems, and

even alarm-monitoring software.



TYPES OF MONITORING SYSTEMS

A security officer might come into contact

with any number of monitoring systems when

staffing a console. Each system may control a

specific action or sequence of actions if so programmed. The most complex are integrated systems that operate multiple individual operations

from one software application.



Alarm Systems

At the basic, but most reliable, end of the

spectrum is an alarm system that monitors

areas of a facility. This would consist of sensors placed around the facility and connected

to a central console. In some systems, the console might include lights and a buzzer such

that a violation or alarm would cause both the

light and buzzer to activate. Toggle switches

connected in the circuit allow for areas to

be shunted, bypassed, or silenced until the

alarm can be investigated. This also allows for

a sensor with a fault on it to be silenced until



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8. CENTRAL ALARM STATIONS AND DISPATCH OPERATIONS



repaired. However, this generally leads to the

assumption that any alarm on that device is

usually a false alarm. It is therefore imperative

to repair any part of the system that is malfunctioning as soon as possible. Depending on the

type of sensor that is malfunctioning, it may be

necessary to station an additional security officer in that area or conduct additional patrols.

Modern alarm systems have a keypad that

operates much in this same fashion, but with the

addition of a communicator that allows the signals to be transmitted offsite to another console

in a neighboring facility, an alarm central monitoring station, or in rare cases, to the police. Some

modern alarm systems will spell out the location

of the alarm in a textual format. As long as the

naming convention is consistent across the system and all officers are trained in how to locate

an alarm that is spelled out, this can be a very

cost-effective method of monitoring a facility.

Fixed graphical alarm panels will show an

outline of the facility and critical areas being

monitored within. When an alarm is generated,

it is much easier to find and locate the alarm

because the alarm is shown relative to the layout of the facility. Computer-based graphical

alarm panels will also show the facility, but

can be modified as the facility or the system

expands in scope and coverage.



Access Control Systems

Access control systems are based on the

premise that issuing keys to all employees

who need them is generally not cost-effective.

Another premise of an access control system is

that it would be cost prohibitive to rekey the

facility should a key be lost. Finally, an access

control system can limit employee access;

allowing them entry only to areas in which they

are authorized, or granting entry during certain

times of day.

An access control system uses a means of

verification, known as a credential, to allow a

person to enter an area. The credential can be



something that is known, generally a personal

identification number; something that is carried, such as a card or token; or something that

the authorized person has, such as a fingerprint

or iris (the colored part of the eye). The credential is entered, swiped, presented, or scanned,

and, after some level of verification, access is

granted or denied.

Access control systems come with various

means of operation and scope from a single

door to many thousands of doors or alarms

around the world. At the small end of the access

control spectrum is the single door keypad at

which a person enters a code that is mechanically or electronically verified. Most access control systems use a card-based credential, which

is swiped or presented to an electronic reader to

gain access. These systems can be used across

just a few doors to many thousands of doors

and sensors connected via the company’s computer network. The most secure access control

systems utilize a biometric authentication process. Biometrics entails using something that is

part of the person for verification of identity,

such as fingerprints, hand geometry, vein pattern recognition, voice print, and iris recognition. Biometrics can be used as the sole means

of verification, but are frequently used in conjunction with a card reader.

Another main component of medium- to

large-sized access control systems is the distributed processor, sometimes referred to as a field

controller. This computer is installed between

the main computer and the card reader at the

door and communicates back to the main computer only when necessary, such as to request

updated information about card holders or

when there is an alarm. The distributed processor makes all of the decisions as to granting or

denying access to a person who presents their

card at the card reader, therefore taking the processing load off the main computer and allowing the entire system to operate faster. The

distributed processor also allows the system to

continue to operate if the connection back to the



II. COMMUNICATIONS



TYPES OF MONITORING SYSTEMS



main computer is interrupted. Typically, distributed processors control between 2 and 16 doors

and allow for the connection of various sensors,

just like a regular alarm system. Distributed

processors can communicate to the main computer via a communications protocol such as

RS-232 or RS-485, although an increasing number of systems are now being connected to a

company’s internal computer network (intranet). Newer systems are taking the network

connection all the way down to the card reader

at the door. Other systems use a Web-based

interface for programming the system and can

communicate down to the distributed processor via the network or through the wireless data

network available from cell phone companies.

The main computer in an access control

system can be a simple desktop computer for

small systems up to redundant mirrored servers for very large systems, or any combination

in between. In smaller systems, the computer is

used for entering cardholder information and

programming the system, whereas in larger

systems there may be multiple computers dedicated to programming and photo badge creation or monitoring and controlling the various

alarms and doors connected to the system. In

the largest systems the desktops communicate

to a server, which is a high-speed computer able

to perform several thousand operations per second: essential for controlling the flow of data

back and forth across a large access control system. In some cases, a secondary server is kept

on standby to act as a reserve to the primary

server should it fail or need periodic maintenance. When this secondary server is receiving

the same updates at almost the same time as the

primary server and can automatically take over

the processing load, it is said to be redundant

or mirrored.

Access control systems can be used to monitor alarms, such as door alarms, duress buttons,

or environmental situations (high or low temperature, sump pump, water level). The control

systems typically contain a graphical interface



93



that allows the application to show building

layout or to import floor plans from another

application. Thus, all activity in the system is

presented on a single screen. Automatic actions

for certain events can be programmed into such

a system, such as calling up a particular camera

when a door goes into alarm.



Fire Alarm Systems

Of all the alarm systems, it is most critical for

security officers to understand the basic operation and interaction of fire alarm systems. Fire

alarm systems are regulated by building and

fire alarm codes adopted by the municipality

in which the facility resides. Because different

municipalities may adopt different codes, how

a system operates or is installed at one location

might be quite different at another location. As

fire alarm systems are so essential for the safety

of the employees and the well-being of the

facility, it is critical to have a thorough working

knowledge of the operation of the system and

the security officer’s role in its successful use. It

is also very important to understand the proper

operation of the system and expectations of the

fire department.

Fire alarm systems typically have a main

control panel with a display. If necessary, additional displays can be installed in other areas.

Larger systems may incorporate a graphical

display of the facility and locations of the various sensors therein. Where the alarm must be

monitored offsite, a communicator or dialer is

installed to allow the fire alarm to send alerts

to an alarm company central station or, in some

rare cases, to the fire department.

Like intrusion alarm systems, fire alarms

can be connected with a number of devices

on a zone. Newer, larger fire alarm systems

(and intrusion alarm systems as well) utilize

a multiplex loop, where all of the devices are

connected on the same loop, with each device

having its own unique identifier or address.

This type of system is known as a multiplex or



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8. CENTRAL ALARM STATIONS AND DISPATCH OPERATIONS



addressable system. The largest fire alarm systems

integrate dozens or hundreds of control panels

across several facilities, with a dedicated main

computer in the company command center for

monitoring.



Building Automation Systems (BAS)

Building automation systems operate much

the same, and in a similar configuration, as

access control systems. Building automation

systems control heating, ventilating and air conditioning (known collectively as HVAC), as well

as lights. More expansive systems can assist in

controlling elevators, escalators, and irrigation

systems. Building automation systems may

integrate with, or share the same software and

hardware as, an access control system.



Closed-Circuit Television Systems (CCTV)

Closed-circuit television (CCTV) systems

allow dispatchers to watch over a large number

of areas at once. They provide an excellent (and

cost-effective) way to monitor high-sensitivity

and high-risk locations at all times, without

needing to post a protection officer at those

locations. The cameras used may be easily visible to the public or they may be hidden to the

point of near-invisibility, depending on the needs

of the organization and the locations at which

they are stationed.

From the central monitoring station, a dispatcher may be able to view up to 16 separate

images in real time on a single monitor (Nelson,

1999). Alternatively, he or she may view a single

image at a time, and switch to other images on

demand or at preset intervals. The video images

may be in color or black-and-white format.

According to Nelson (1999), color images are

better for identification purposes, while blackand-white images have better performance in

low light. Cameras may be stationary, but those

with pan, tilt, and zoom capabilities can easily

be installed wherever they are necessary. From



the central monitoring station, dispatchers can

control these cameras at will, in order to focus on

locations or individuals that require close observation at a given time. These cameras can also be

set up to focus on a series of locations, one after

another, each for a preset length of time.

CCTV cameras generally incorporate a

method of recording the images they monitor.

This allows protection officers to revisit images

to verify descriptions of individuals and events,

and also to retain those images for use as evidence. At particularly sensitive locations, video

may be recorded on a continuous basis, but this

very quickly consumes a great deal of data storage space. Cameras that are integrated with

other sensors—intrusion sensors, for example—

can be set up to focus on a specific area and

begin recording when an alarm is received from

the associated sensor. A dispatcher typically has

the ability to begin and end a video recording

at any time and to take a single snapshot image.

Images have typically been stored on video

cassettes, in either real time or time-lapse format (Ruiz, 1999). However, the current trend

is for image files to be digitally stored onto

computer hard disk drives either using digital

video recorders, (DVR), or with several drives

together, or onto large capacity storage devices

known as network attached storage (NAS) or

storage area networks (SANs). It is possible to

connect the hard disk drives into a configuration known as a redundant array of independent disks, or RAID. Such a configuration has

the capability of either manually or automatically backing up drives so that the failure of

any one drive does not result in the loss of all

recorded data. Other options for exporting

images include CD-ROM compact disks, digital

video disks, or even USB flash drives.



Integrated Systems

As security and fire alarm systems become

more expansive in scope and operation, it is

sometimes necessary to link the systems together



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TYPES OF SENSORS



under one controlling piece of software or application. Other times it is necessary to link various

systems together, such as human resources systems, parking applications, and payroll systems,

so that there is greater functionality and more

accurate information flowing automatically

between those systems. Such systems are generically referred to as “integrated systems.”



●



●



TYPES OF SENSORS

All security, fire, and other alarm systems

incorporate a wide variety of sensors at various points throughout a protected facility. The

basic purpose of a sensor is to detect a physical change in the environment, interpret what

event might be taking place, and transmit that

information back to a central processor where it

is translated into a format that can be read by

the dispatchers in the central alarm station.



●



Intrusion Sensors

Intrusion sensors are meant to determine

whether an unauthorized person has accessed,

or attempted to access, a protected area (Garcia,

1999). Various types of sensors can be placed

around the perimeter of a facility, around a

smaller area within the facility, or on a particular spot or item (Morris, 2003). They typically

incorporate a short delay prior to generating an

alarm, in order to allow an authorized person

to deactivate the system without sending a false

alarm to the monitoring station. Types of intrusion sensors include:

●



Magnetic contact switches. These are placed

on doors, windows, and other potential

access points. Typically, the first part of the

mechanism is placed on the frame and the

second part is placed on the movable portion

of the access point. When the access point is

opened, the magnetic signal is interrupted

and the sensor generates an alarm.



●



●



95



Glass break sensors. When a pane of glass

breaks, it emits sound waves in a specific

frequency. Glass break sensors are able to

pick up this frequency and generate an alarm

in response. They are particularly useful

near windows and glass doors (J. Russell,

personal communication, July 8, 2009).

Motion sensors. Microwave sensors send

waves of electromagnetic energy back and

forth within an area. If an intruder enters,

the energy is interrupted, and the sensor

generates an alarm. Passive infrared sensors

detect the body heat of an intruder and

generate an alarm in response. Ideally, an

area will be protected by dual-technology

sensors. These combine microwave and

infrared technology into one sensor,

increasing the reliability of the system and

decreasing the number of false alarms

transmitted to the monitoring station

(Morris, 2003).

Electric eye. This type of sensor consists

of a transmitter, which generates infrared

light in a straight line, and a receiver

directly opposite the transmitter. When

the beam of light is broken by an intruder,

an alarm is sent to the central processor.

Electric eyes have declined in popularity

due to the availability of motion detectors

with greater reliability (J. Russell, personal

communication, July 8, 2009).

Seismic sensors. These are able to pick up

vibrations on a surface and when a certain

vibration threshold is reached, an alarm is

generated. Seismic sensors may be placed on

floors in order to detect a walking intruder,

or on walls or doors, to detect an attempted

break-in (J. Russell, personal communication,

July 8, 2009).

Pressure sensors. These detect the weight

of a person or object. If an intruder steps

on a pressure mat, the change in surface

weight activates an alarm. Alternatively, a

pressure switch may be placed underneath

an object at risk of theft or removal. Again, if



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96



●



8. CENTRAL ALARM STATIONS AND DISPATCH OPERATIONS



an intruder removes the object, the change in

surface weight triggers an alarm.

Panic and duress alarms. These are switches

that must be manually activated by a staff

member when he or she is threatened by an

intruder or other emergency. Typically, they

are utilized in high-risk or high-sensitivity

areas and are hidden from the general

public. Alternatively, handheld wireless

panic alarm triggers may be issued directly

to employees (Morris, 2003).



●



●



Access Control Sensors

Access control sensors may be used to detect

unauthorized access to a facility, and to generate security alarms in response. However, they

may also be used to grant access to authorized

personnel when presented with the proper credentials. Several types of access control sensors

are often used at a single entry point in order to

provide multiple layers of security:

●



●



Magnetic contact switches. These operate in

the same manner as they do when applied to

intrusion detection systems. These switches

are able to detect whether a door is open

or closed; if the door is opened without

presentation of a proper credential, a forced

door alarm will be generated (J. Russell,

personal communication, July 8, 2009).

Request-to-exit devices. Also known as REX

switches, these are sometimes embedded

into the crash bar or doorknob on the interior

of a door. A motion sensor may also be used

as a request-to-exit device when mounted

above the door, to sense a person traveling

toward the door to exit. When the door is

opened properly in order to exit an area, the

REX switch is triggered and bypasses the

magnetic contact switch, avoiding a false

alarm. However, if the door is left open for

an extended period of time, a held door

alarm will be generated. Unless there is a

requirement to do so, REX devices should



●



●



●



not be programmed to unlock the door, as

this allows the door to be unlocked from the

outside without a key or card.

Keypad locks. These devices require

an employee to input a numeric code in

order to bypass the locking mechanism.

Because codes can be easily transferred to

unauthorized persons, these locks are often

used in conjunction with other access control

measures.

Magnetic strip readers. An employee is

issued a card with a magnetic strip, which

is embedded with numerical data. The

employee swipes the card through the

reader, which uses that data to verify his

or her authorization for access (J. Russell,

personal communication, July 8, 2009).

Proximity card readers. Proximity cards are

also embedded with a numeric identifier.

The staff member waves the card near the

reader, which utilizes radio frequencies to

receive the data, which is sent to the field

controller. The field controller verifies the

card and grants or denies access accordingly

(Best, 2003).

Wiegand card readers. A Wiegand card

contains specially treated wires with a

unique magnetic signature. A sensing coil

inside the reader receives the data contained

within the employee’s card (Best, 2003). The

card can either be swiped or passed through,

depending on the design of the reader.

Biometric readers. These detect the unique

characteristics of parts of a person’s body in

order to verify his or her access privileges.

Biometric readers include fingerprint scanners,

handprint scanners, retinal scanners, facial

recognition, and voice recognition.



Fire Alarm Sensors

The ability of fire to devastate lives and property should never be underestimated. Fire alarm

sensors seek to prevent significant damage by

detecting fires in their earliest stages, allowing



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TYPES OF SENSORS



protection officers and fire officials ample time

to respond. Fire alarm sensors include (J. Russell,

personal communication, July 8, 2009):

●

●



●



●



●



●



●



Heat detectors. These measure changes

in a room’s ambient temperature. They

are programmed to a certain baseline

temperature and when the room’s

temperature exceeds the baseline, a fire

alarm is triggered.

Photoelectric smoke detectors. This type of

detector contains an electric eye, generating

a beam of infrared light within its housing.

When smoke enters the detector, it refracts

that infrared light, and an alarm is triggered

in response.

Ionization detectors. These devices contain

a tiny amount of radioactive material, which

creates radiation in an ionization chamber.

Any smoke that enters will absorb some of

the radiation and change the electrical charge

within the chamber, prompting the device

to send an alarm signal to the monitoring

station.

Air sampling detectors. These are often

used to protect rooms filled with sensitive

equipment, such as computer servers. They

continuously take in air from the room

and analyze the air samples for smoke or

combustion particles. If a positive result is

received, the detector generates an alarm

and in many cases, immediately causes a fire

suppressant to be discharged within the room.

Beam detectors. These utilize an electric

eye, which extends a beam of infrared light

across an entire room, rather than within

the housing of a photoelectric detector. They

are most often used in rooms with very

high ceilings, where it would be impractical

to install and maintain a smaller detector.

Again, the beam of light will be refracted

by smoke in the room and an alarm will be

triggered.

Flame detectors. These are able to spot

actual flames, rather than sense smoke



97



or combustion particles. They typically

incorporate ultraviolet light sensors, infrared

light sensors, or visible light sensors.

Pull stations. These switches are

strategically placed throughout a protected

facility, and when a person observes fire or

smoke, he or she is encouraged to manually

pull the nearest switch, triggering a fire

alarm and speeding evacuation of the

area. Unfortunately, pull stations are easily

abused. To activate a pull station in order

to cause a false public alarm is a criminal

offense in most jurisdictions; therefore,

protection officers responding to such

alarms should be prepared to enforce their

organization’s relevant policy or involve

local law enforcement as appropriate.



Building Automation Sensors

Building automation sensors are typically

used to measure and adjust the heating, ventilation, air conditioning, lighting, and other

environmental conditions in a protected facility.

They include:

●



●



●



Gas detectors. There are several different

types of gas detectors, each of which will

measure the levels of a particular type of

gas in the air (such as natural gas, carbon

monoxide, carbon dioxide, and radon). If the

gas levels exceed a preset tolerance, an alarm

is generated.

Level indicators. These are often applied

to tanks that hold liquids or gases that are

critical to a facility’s operation. When the

amount of liquid or gas in the tanks drops

below a preprogrammed level, a notification

can be sent to the central monitoring station

or to personnel who will refill the tanks

(J. Russell, personal communication, July 8,

2009).

Temperature sensors. As the name suggests,

these measure the ambient temperature in a

room. They are often utilized in rooms where



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98



●



●



8. CENTRAL ALARM STATIONS AND DISPATCH OPERATIONS



scientific experiments are being conducted

and the temperature must be kept extremely

hot, extremely cold, or within a specific

range. If the temperature falls out of the

pre-set range, an alarm is triggered.

Power failure sensors. These are integrated

with the electrical system of a facility. When

a power failure occurs, a notification alarm

can be sent to the central monitoring station.

At the same time, devices such as backup

generators and emergency lights can be

automatically activated.

Integrated sensors. Some of the same

devices used to detect intruders—magnetic

door switches and motion sensors,

for example—can be integrated with

lighting systems. In this way, lights can be

programmed to turn on automatically when

a staff member enters a darkened room.



Closed-Circuit Television Sensors

Closed-circuit television cameras themselves

can be considered sensors because they receive

visual images and transmit them back to the

central monitoring station. However, human

eyes alone are not the most reliable detectors

when it comes to CCTV systems (Garcia, 1999),

particularly when they may be focused on up to

16 images on a single monitor. For this reason,

additional sensors are usually integrated into a

CCTV system:

●



Integrated sensors. The majority of CCTV

sensors are not incorporated into the camera

unit itself. However, CCTV systems can be

integrated with a wide variety of sensors from

other systems, including intrusion detection,

access control, and fire detection. For example,

if a bank teller triggers a panic alarm, the

bank’s cameras can be programmed to zoom

in on his or her location and begin recording

immediately. At the central monitoring station,

an additional alarm may draw the dispatcher’s

attention to the relevant camera images.



●



●



Motion sensors or Video Motion Detection

(VMD). Certain types of motion sensors

can be incorporated directly into a CCTV

camera. These typically utilize a reference

image, which is compared to the image

currently being picked up by the camera,

in order to detect whether the image has

changed significantly (J. Russell, personal

communication, July 8, 2009).

Facial recognition. This biometric technology,

when integrated with sophisticated CCTV

cameras, can identify potentially dangerous

individuals by comparing a face with wanted

person lists or terrorism watch lists. They

are most often utilized by law enforcement

officials at immigrations checkpoints, such as

airports (Best, 2003).



TRANSMISSION MEDIA

When an alarm sensor detects an event that

warrants a protection officer’s attention, it immediately transmits a message back to the central

monitoring station. A transmission medium is

simply the method by which that message is carried. Signals may be carried by a variety of solid

materials, or may pass through the air itself.

●



Copper wire. This type of material is

extremely common throughout the alarm

industry. Intrusion and fire alarms can

be transmitted through copper cables

specifically geared toward alarm systems;

however, they are frequently transmitted

through traditional telephone lines,

which are also usually made of copper. A

disadvantage of copper wire is that it can

be cut or otherwise damaged, interrupting

the transmission of vital signals. However,

a major advantage is that it is continuously

monitored by the alarm system if properly

installed, so that if such damage occurs,

the central monitoring station will be

immediately notified (J. Russell, personal

communication, July 8, 2009).



II. COMMUNICATIONS



VISITOR MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

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Optical fiber. This type of material is

increasing in popularity at a rapid pace. It

was once far more expensive to install a fiber

optic network than a copper one, but like

most technological innovations, fiber optics

are dropping in price. Copper wire carries

signals in the form of electricity; optical fiber

carries signals in the form of light, which is less

inherently dangerous. Additionally, optical

fiber is able to carry larger amounts of data at a

faster rate than copper wire. Both transmission

media can be cut or damaged, but like copper

wire, optical fiber is continuously monitored,

so the central monitoring station will be made

aware as soon as this occurs.

Radio transmission. This method utilizes the

air as its transmission medium. Alarm signals

are sent via a certain radio frequency from

point A directly to point B. This solution can

cover a much longer distance than copper

wire or optical fiber. A drawback with some

radio systems, however, is that the signal

is prone to interference from trees, other

objects, or competing radio signals (J. Russell,

personal communication, July 8, 2009).

Cellular transmission. Cellular signals are

similar to radio signals; in fact, they operate

within the radio frequency spectrum. The

difference is that cellular signals are transmitted

at a higher frequency within that spectrum.

Additionally, they utilize cell towers that are

capable of digitally processing, sending, and

receiving the signals over a wider area than

traditional radio signals. Unfortunately, this

transmission medium is not continuously

monitored; therefore, in fire alarm systems, it

can only be used as a backup method, rather

than a first line of defense (J. Russell, personal

communication, July 8, 2009).



VISITOR MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Several organizations—large office buildings and schools, for example—receive a large



99



number of visitors each day as part of their normal operations. Personnel at the front office or

security office must fulfill two functions: first,

they must determine whether or not to allow a

visitor access to the building. Second, they must

keep a log of all visitors who have arrived and

departed.

In the past, organizations typically relied

on a paper sign-in sheet at the building’s main

entrance. A visitor would write his or her name,

time of arrival, specific destination within the

building, and purpose of the visit on the sign-in

sheet. Personnel at the desk would verify the

visitor’s identity, ensure that he or she had permission to enter the building, and in most cases,

issue a temporary identification badge for the

visitor to wear while on the premises. The visitor

would then be required to sign out when exiting

the building. This type of procedure is still in

place at many organizations, especially smaller

ones, due to its simplicity and low cost.

However, for many larger organizations,

electronic visitor management systems prove

safer and more cost-effective because staff members no longer need to spend time logging visitors in and out, and personally clearing each

one through applicable unwanted person databases (Savicki, 2007). Such solutions greatly

increased in popularity after September 11,

2001. A typical electronic visitor management

system consists of a kiosk at the building’s

entrance, an attached printer, and software that

links the kiosk to the front office or security

office. A visitor approaches the kiosk and enters

his or her personal information or presents his

or her driver’s license for the machine to read.

The purpose of the visit must also be provided

(Moorhouse, 2008). The kiosk may check the

individual through applicable state and national

databases—sex offender registries are typically

utilized in school settings—as well as organizationally defined unwanted person databases.

If the visitor is not cleared, he or she is issued

a voided identification badge and appropriate

staff members are notified automatically to take



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8. CENTRAL ALARM STATIONS AND DISPATCH OPERATIONS



further action (Savicki, 2007). If the visitor is

cleared, the kiosk prints an identification badge

for him or her to wear on the premises, which

includes a facial photograph, the date, time,

and purpose of the visit (Moorhouse, 2008). An

added benefit is the ability of staff members to

easily search the software database for detailed

information on previous visitors.

It is also possible to integrate a visitor management system with a building’s access control system. For example, the card printed by

the kiosk may be programmed with certain

electronic credentials, which would allow the

bearer to enter authorized doors by swiping

the card or presenting it to an electronic reader.

Alternatively, frequent visitors may be issued a

permanent card or tag, which can be presented

to the kiosk when entering or exiting the building, without necessitating a new identification

card for each visit (Savicki, 2007).



COMMUNICATIONS

Communications equipment plays a huge role

in the successful resolution of alarms, criminal

and policy violations, emergency situations, and,

of course, customer service. In a modern central

monitoring and dispatch station, communication

takes many forms. However, the vast majority of

communication is performed verbally, through

telephone lines and radio channels.

A modern telephone system in a central

station will incorporate many technological

advances available to the general public, such as

caller ID, preset number dialers, and the ability

to place callers on hold or transfer them to other

lines. However, the system should also be tailored for use by emergency service personnel.

The system’s interface may be a series of

physical keys on what looks like a very large

telephone base, or it may be integrated with

touchscreen software, to allow the operator to



switch between functions quickly and easily.

Typically, the operator will be equipped with a

headset, in order to move about the station and

keep both hands free while communicating with

a caller. The system may incorporate several

incoming emergency lines and several incoming nonemergency lines, which would likely be

shared by all telephone consoles at the station.

Each console would also have access to its own

line for outgoing calls. Alternatively, all emergency calls may be routed to a dedicated “red

phone” in the station, eliminating the need to

place an emergency caller on hold while briefing police, fire, or emergency medical services

(Thibodeau, 2003). It is common for all telephone calls, incoming and outgoing, emergency

and nonemergency, to be automatically recorded

and archived for supervisors to refer to later.

In agencies with very advanced technology,

telephone systems may be integrated with a

variety of other systems in the central station.

For example, it is possible to connect certain

telephone software with certain computer-aided

dispatch software and geographic mapping

software. In these situations, the central station

may receive an emergency call, and the location

provided by the caller ID may be automatically

highlighted on a computerized map. The location might then be automatically imported into

the computer-aided dispatch software when a

new event is created by the operator.

Organizational policy varies with regard to the

usage of cellular phones by protection officers in

the field. When they are permitted, they can be

very useful tools for relaying information back

and forth that is sensitive but nonemergency in

nature. At the very least, it is common for a patrol

supervisor to be equipped with an organizationissued cellular phone for this purpose.

Radio systems are equally as important as

telephone systems in both emergency and nonemergency situations. They are the most frequently used method by which field officers



II. COMMUNICATIONS